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NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

NEW TRAILS IN
MEXICO

AN ACCOUNT OF ONE YEAR'S EXPLORATION IN
NORTH-WESTERN SONORA, MEXICO, AND SOUTH-WESTERN ARIZONA

1909-1910

CARL LUMHOLTZ, M.A.

MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF SCIENCES OF CHRISTIANIA; GOLD MEDALLIST OF THE NORWEGIAN

GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY; ASSOCIE ETRANGER DE LA SOCIETE DE L'ANTHROPOLOGIE

DE PARIS; AUTHOR OF "AMONG CANNIBALS," "UNKNOWN MEXICO," ETC.

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS
INCLUDING TWO COLOR PLATES AND TWO MAPS

NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

191 2

Published October, 1912

THOSE WHO LOVE NATURE

IN ALL ITS ASPECTS

PREFACE

During the years 1909 and 1910 I was commissioned
by some influential friends to look into certain economical
possibilities of the arid and little known country along
the upper part of the Gulf of California, east of the Colo-
rado River. My field embraced most of the District of
Altar, in the State of Sonora, Mexico, as well as the
southern part of the newly admitted State of Arizona;
in other words, the region which by the early Spanish
chroniclers was designated as Papagueria, after the native
inhabitants, the Papago Indians. Some of this country,
being the least accessible part of the Sonora Desert,
is singularly little known, though lying, so to speak, at
the door of the great empire of Yankee enterprise. My
mission gave me an opportunity for geographical and
ethnological studies, an account of which is here presented
in popular form. For this opportunity I am grateful to
my friends.

Among my predecessors in exploration of the Papa-
gueria should be mentioned Prof. W. J. McGee, well
known from his studies of the Seri Indians, lower down
the Gulf. In the nineties he made journeys through
parts of this region and he has published interesting ac-
counts of the desert and its natives. In November, 1908,

viii PREFACE

Drs. D. T. MacDougal and W. T. Hornaday made a
month's trip from Tucson, Arizona, to the Pinacate region,
both publishing descriptions which were accompanied by
maps by Mr. Godfrey Sykes. These gentlemen, accord-
ing to their own reports, had no opportunities for extensive
explorations of the Papagueria, which I found of such in-
terest that my expedition occupied me over a year. The
extreme western part of this region, the sandy country
between Pinacate and the Colorado River, so far as my
knowledge goes, had not before been investigated. The
travels here of the Jesuit fathers during the seventeenth
century did not extend much south of the present Mexican
boundary. Some of that country probably had not be-
fore ever been visited by a white man, and I have there-
fore described that part of my journey in greater detail,
thinking that an accurate account may prove of value
and even of practical interest.

This region, no doubt, recently had a less arid climate,
with much greater rainfall than at the present time. It
seems impossible to explain otherwise the recent great
accumulation of detritus at Sonoita, at the origin of the
little river of the same name, or the marked effect of the
action of the water on the hard rocks of Tinaja de los
Papagos. That country is a desert, on account of the
scarcity of rain, but the soil is in places extremely fertile
and I doubt not that through human agency large parts
of it will some day delight the eye with waving fields of
grain and orchards of fruit.

Although most of that arid region will always remain
suitable only for cattle and horse raising, still there is

PREFACE ix

more of it than people realize which can be brought under
cultivation. I may mention the extensive valley which,
south of the Mexican boundary line, runs east and west,
passing beyond Sonoita, the great plains north-east and
south-east of Pinacate, as well as the middle course in
most of the flat valleys; for instance, many of those be-
tween the Gila range and the ranges following as far east
almost as Silver Bell, extending in the west as far north
as the Gila River. The problem of water is bound to
be solved at some future time, as soon as the necessity
arises. Water may be found at a depth of from fifty to
a hundred feet, but at most places one would have to go
several hundred feet down. Judging from the extraor-
dinary springs I encountered on the shore of the salt
deposit, Salina Grande, near the coast, there must be a
large sheet of fresh water underneath most of that western
coastal desert. This inference seems to be confirmed by
the flow of water which was found in digging the well,
near Horseshoe in the Quijotoa Range.

The mineral prospects of the region, especially as
regards gold, are great. There are numerous large veins
south of Sonoita which should be examined and the moun-
tains of the western desert explored. Free gold which
undoubtedly has been encountered in the malpais in the
northern part of Pinacate should also be followed up.

The extraordinary adaptation to arid conditions of
plant and animal life, even the domesticated animals
of Indians and Mexicans subsisting without difficulty for
months without water, cannot help but interest the ob-
server. With the exception of the Seri and Pima Indians

x PREFACE

the natives of the desert have so far received little attention
from those engaged in the study of primitive races. The
Papagoes are the great desert people of America and are
remarkably stable in their racial characteristics, still pre-
serving traditions and habits of the past which will soon
disappear. There are also ancient remains left since
the occupancy of that same country by people who had
a higher state of development than the present-day Ind-
ians. Original documents relating to the history of the
region are not always of easy access, and I have not had
an opportunity of consulting them.

In spite of excessive heat in the summer the nights are
always cool, and the climate is salubrious and even in-
vigorating. During three months in the spring I travelled
without wearing a hat, which made me feel comfortable
and actually cooler. The one drawback to a journey
in those regions is, of course, the want of water, and, be-
cause of this, caution is necessary, but this need not inter-
fere with the enjoyment of the freedom of the wilds. I
can understand the expression of an enthusiastic person
who for the first time felt the charm of the desert: "I
am drunk with out-of-doors!" When I, in the easy sur-
roundings of civilized life, read my notes from the field,
it sometimes occurs to me that this or that which I went
through was well done; but what in civilization appears
as hardship, privation, or risk amounts to little when act-
ually happening, even if one is, as the Irishman said,
"a thousand miles from home and fifty miles from any
place."

To the lover of nature in all aspects, this land of "si-

PREFACE xi

lence, solitude, and sunshine" cannot help but present a
strong fascination. The wonderful colors of the late
afternoon, the glorious sunsets, the peace and calm of
night, the thrill that accompanies the early dawn of the
morning are sources of constant delight to the traveller.
Besides, an expedition of this kind directs one's thoughts
into other channels than those of the ordinary humdrum
of life. The starlit sky, under which one sleeps with im-
punity, invites imagination to take flight into the infinite
universe, and one has time to reflect on the beauty of
existence and the grandeur of nature, a pleasure which is
denied to most dwellers in cities.

During my travels I used an Army Sketching Case,
designed and patented by Glenn T. Smith, topographer,
United States Geological Survey, and I collected besides
a large amount of data of geographical importance. Of
the region traversed by me a considerable portion appears
on the hitherto published maps as blank space. The
International Boundary Commission, which takes in
generally from two and a half to three miles on each
side of the boundary. West of Meridian in, west of
Greenwich, and south of Parallel 33 only one topo-
graphical sheet, that of Yuma, has been published by
the United States Geological Survey.

In making the map herewith presented, as a base for
starting, the Atlas sheets of the International Boundary
Commission have been used. In Arizona the word
"range" has been employed as a synonym for the
Spanish sierra. This is generally in conformity with
the usage of the South-west.

xii PREFACE

The following maps and authorities were consulted:

1. Report of the International Boundary Commission,

1891-1896.

2. United States Geological Survey.

3. Gulf of California, original survey by U. S. S.

Narragansett, 1 873-1 875, the Hydrographic
Office, United States Navy Department, Wash-
ington, District of Columbia.

4. General Land Office Map, Department of the In-

terior, 1909.

5. Pima County, by George J. Roskruge, 1893.
While the accompanying map has been made with

all possible care and after taking into account all obtain-
able material, it naturally does not claim absolute accu-
racy. The task of preparing a map approaching perfec-
tion would require as many years as I had months at
my disposal.

I desire to express to Mr. A. Briesemeister, of the
American Museum of Natural History, who drew the two
maps, my appreciation of his painstaking and skilful
work. Sr. Y. Bonillas, mining engineer and surveyor
in Nogales, kindly assisted in giving the location of cer-
tain places, and to his son, Sr. Y. S. Bonillas, of the In-
stitute Geologico de Mexico, I owe valuable topograph-
ical information in regard to the Pinacate region. I am
indebted to Mr. G. Sykes for a tracing of the mouth of the
Colorado River, 1907, although I disagree with him in his
estimate of the extent of the Santa Clara Slough.

The photographs have with few exceptions been taken
by myself. I had with me three cameras, all of the so-

PREFACE xiii

called Kodak type, made by the Eastman Company,
Rochester, New York. The largest carried 5x7 films;
the other two were Folding Pocket Kodaks, all provided
with high-grade lenses. The photograph of the little elf
owl, reproduced at page 18, was presented to me by Mr.
Herbert Brown, of Tucson, and that of the row of cur-
lews, at page 256, by Mr. Warburton Pike, of British
Columbia. The photograph of Casa Grande, which
appears on the map of the Papagueria, I owe to the
courtesy of the Bureau of American Ethnology. The
photograph of the Yaqui chiefs, as well as that of the
donkeys bringing bat guano, were taken by a Hermosillo
photographer. The clowns and Pablo I had taken in
Tucson.

Mr. Marius Dahlgren, my able friend of Tucson,
kindly contributed the painting of sunset in the desert,
reproduced as frontispiece. Miss Gladys Batchelder
Greene was good enough to transcribe the two native
songs. The two colored illustrations are by Mr. R.
Weber, and the drawings of native implements were
made by Mr. W. Baake, after objects collected during
the expedition.

The comparative vocabulary, published by the Smith-
sonian Institution, has been used as a basis for the
short vocabularies of Appendix I.

To my good friend, Hon. Franklin MacVeagh, Secre-
tary of the United States Treasury, I am indebted for the
official courtesy which he, through the State Department,
secured on my behalf in Mexico.

I wish to express my grateful acknowledgment to the

xiv PREFACE

Mexican Government for removing all custom duties
for my expedition and for continuing in other ways the
pleasant relations of former years.

For the identification of the several plants referred to
in the book as well as for valuable information on botanical
subjects I am under great obligation to Dr. B. L. Robin-
son, Curator of the Gray Herbarium, Harvard University.
Dr. J. A. Allen, Mr. Frank M. Chapman, and Mr. W.
Beutenmuller, of the American Museum of Natural His-
tory, New York, have identified certain mammals, birds,
and insects. Mr. Samuel Henshaw, of the Museum of
Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, has identified
various insects. In regard to mineralogical and geological
specimens I have consulted with Dr. C. P. Berkey, of
Columbia University; Mr. L. P. Gratacap and Dr. E. O.
Hovey, of the American Museum of Natural History, as
well as with Prof. Cyrus F. Tolman, of Arizona Uni-
versity, who for ten days accompanied me on the
expedition near Magdalena, and who has contributed a
sketch of the geological formation of the Papagueria,
presented as Appendix III. Mr. Nathan Banks, Mr.
Barton A. Bean, Dr. J. N. Rose, and Dr. Leonard
Stejneger, of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
have further contributed toward the identification of
certain specimens of natural history.

Carl Lumholtz
New York, 1912

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

PAGE

Westward Bound — Civilization in the West — Tucson Past and
Present — Visit to San Xavier Del Bac — The Papago Ind-
ian Reservation — Ancient Fortifications — Native Ceme-
teries— Antiquities — Courtship of the Night Hawks . . I

CHAPTER II

The Papagueria — Its Natural Features — Sierras and Llanos
— Small Rainfall— High Temperature— Remarkable Adap-
tation of Plant Life — Fauna — The Papago, the Great
People of the Desert — First Encounter with the Whites
— Present Conditions 1 6

CHAPTER III

An Expedition into Southern Arizona — My Companion —
The Range of Baboquivari — Fresnal — Papago Manner of
Curing Disease — At the Boundary — An Unusual Relig-
ious Commotion — Visit to a Sacred Cave — Indian Oasis . 30

CHAPTER IV

The Giant Cactus or Sahuaro — The Sahuaro Feast at Noria
— Dancing and Singing — The Medicine Lodge — Tobacco
— Well Received — Dissertations with the Indians — An
Adventure — An Ancient Festival — Native Oratory — Ob-
jection to Photography — Artistic Gifts of a Native ... 45

CHAPTER V

Comobabi — An Attractive Indian Family — Marianita — A
Horned Lizard that Spurts Blood through the Eye — An
Aboriginal Way of Recording Events — The Papago Cal-
endar— Harvesting Sahuaro — How to Keep Comfortable
in Great Heat — A Visit to Chief Alvina 65

xvi CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI

PAGE

Horseshoe in the Quijotoa Range — Indians as Miners — Spend-
ing a Night under Difficulties — Delightful Natives — A
Woman's Game — Santa Rosa Rancheria — The Great
Harvest Feast of Santa Rosa 82

CHAPTER VII

Visit to a Very Sacred Place — The Children's Sacrifice — A
Meeting with an Important Personage — Anekam — Prim-
itive Natives — I Arrive among the Kohatk People — A
Wet Night — Return to Santa Rosa 99

CHAPTER VIII

Scorpions — A Storm in the Desert — How the Sahuaro Wine
Is Made — The Sahuaro Feast at Santa Rosa — A Great
Rendezvous — Social Amusements of the Papago — Success
at Collecting Specimens — Stuck in the Mud — Wonderful
Change in the Landscape — A Valuable Vegetable — Part-
ing with Pablo Il6

CHAPTER IX

In Magdalena, Mexico — The State of Sonora — The Yaqui
Indians — An Attack of Dysentery — Trincheras, the Re-
markable Ancient Fortifications — Antiquities of the Pa-
pagueria — Altar — Caborca — I Start Westward — Placer
Mines — The Choya — Its Terrible Spines — Its Great Util-
ity— Cattle Which Are without Water for Months . . 1 34

CHAPTER X

Adventure with a Coyote — Unusual Afterglow — A Meteor —
A Great and Fertile Valley — The Custom of Nidri — La
Nariz — The Papagoes of Quitovac 1 56

CONTENTS xvii

CHAPTER XI

PAGE

Sonoita, an Oasis of the Desert— Its Pleasant Population-
Lessons of the Sonoita River — Antiquities — A Lunar
Rainbow — Primitive Gold Mining — Prevalence of Hydro-
phobia— Unusual Refraction of Sunlight 174

CHAPTER XII

Areas of Vegetation — Fitting Out an Expedition under Diffi-
culties— An Old Medicine-Man Enrolled as a Member—
Guadalupe I°7

CHAPTER XIII

The Old Caborca-Yuma Trail— Quitovaquita, the Place of
Small Springs — Old Camping Places — Pinacate and Le-
gends Connected with It — Discovery of Water — Our
First Mountain-Sheep — Visit to a Sacred Cave — Ascent
of the Peak— Winter Weather— Crater Elegante— Travel
at Night 196

CHAPTER XIV

Changing Camp — Mountain-Sheep — The Useful Greasewood
— Palo Fierro, the Friendly Desert Tree — Los Medanos,
the Great Sand Dunes— Unusual Tracks— Abandoned Ind-
ian Camps — New Sierras — La Tinaja de Los Papagos —
Visit to a Crater 21 7

CHAPTER XV

Westward — Looking Back toward Pinacate — Tinajas Altas —
Its Dismal Memories — Sunshine and Moonlight of the
Early Morning — El Capitan — Laguna Prieta, a Salt Lake
— A Long Wait for Water — How Fresh Water Appears
among Bulrushes — Approaching the Colorado River —
Colonia Lerdo — The Indians at the Lower Part of the
Great River 235

xviii CONTENTS

CHAPTER XVI

PAGE

Travelling along the Gulf of California — Delightful Climate —
Killing a Porpoise — Fishing — Fresh Water on the Beach
— Unattractive Drinking Water — Fine Views — A Great
Salt Deposit — Extraordinary Occurrence of Springs —
Hard Travel — The Papago Salt Expeditions — Worship of
the Sea 254

CHAPTER XVII

A Peaceful Day — Tragedy in the Wilderness — Our Animals
Beginning to Give In — A Promising Soda Deposit — Last
Camp on the Beach — Among the Sand Dunes — Sierra
Blanca — The Mouth of the Sonoita River — El Charco —
Pronghorn Antelopes — Meeting with Indians — Return to
Sonoita 274

CHAPTER XVIII

New Expedition Westward — Growler Well — A Hardy Old Pa-
pago— Disagreeable Experience with a Mexican of My
Party — A Valuable New Member — Papago Loyalty —
Pronghorn Antelope Again — Mountain-Sheep Inside of a
Crater — I Leave My Main Camp — My Two Companions
— Risks Taken by the Prospector — Deceptive Atmosphere
— Our Guiding Star — Reading Tracks — Solitude — Beauty
of the Desert 289

CHAPTER XIX

I Overtake My Men — Again at Tinajas Altas — Progress under
Difficulties — Exploring in Los Medanos — Astonishing Dis-
play of Flowers — Picturesque Camp on the Dunes — I
Lose My Riding Mule — Sierra Del Rosario — Travel at
Night— The Wonderful "Root of the Sands" . . . . . 308

CHAPTER XX

Return to Tinajas Altas — Evasive Travellers — An "Oldtimer"
— The Cabeza Prieta Mountains — Vague Notions of Prop-
erty— The Pools of Cabeza Prieta — A Rainy Day — I
Reach My Main Camp — The Advantage of Travel with
Donkeys — My Indian Companions — The Sand People . 320

CONTENTS xix

CHAPTER XXI

PAGE

An Indian Hermit — Aboriginal Cooking — Again in Sonoita —
Ancient Village Sites Around the Altar River — A Remedy
for Snake Bites — I Arrive at Ajo, Arizona — Gila Bend
Reservation — An Ancient Fortress — The Maricopa Ind-
ians— The Ways of Civilization — The Pima Indians —
Casa Grande — Its Builders — Return to Civilization . . 333

CHAPTER XXII

Physical and Mental Characteristics of the Papago — Effects of
Contact with White Man — Marital Relations — Woman's
High Position — Industries — Divisions of the Tribe —
Religion and Myths — Races and Games — Fights with
Apaches — Sham Battles — Present Conditions and Pros-
pects of the Papago 344

APPENDICES

I — Short Vocabularies from the Languages of the Papago,

Pima, and Cocopa Indians 368

II — Rancherias, Present and Past, of the Papago, with Inter-
pretations of Their Native Name 277

III — Geological Sketch of the Papagueria 398

INDEX 401

ILLUSTRATIONS

At Sunset: Santa Catalina Mountains, near Tucson.

{Colored plate) Frontispiece

FACING PAGE

In a Tucson garden 4

Where peace reigns supreme. San Xavier 4

Mission church of San Xavier del Bac 12

A kiln at San Xavier 12

Threshing wheat. San Xavier 12

Sierra de la Basura, Sonora. Seen from the south-west ... 18

An exceptional mountain range of the Papagueria 18

A characteristic mountain range of the Papagueria .... 18

Mocking-bird (Mimus) 22

Elf-owl (Micropsias) 22

Cotton-tail rabbit 22

Young gray fox, at burrow 22

Rattlesnake 22

Peak of Baboquivari, seen from north-west 32

Peak of Baboquivari 42

Ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens) 42

Entrance to the Sacred Cave, at foot of peak of Baboquivari 42

Barrel cactus 42

Sahuaro, or giant cactus (Cereus giganteus) 48

Single-column sahuaro 48

Sahuaro, dry, showing its wooden structure 48

Papago ethnology 5^

Picture drawn by an untutored Papago 62

Using the ancient hoe 62

Mother with child in cradle. Aktjin 62

xxii ILLUSTRATIONS

FACING PAGE

Palo verde, near a Papago cemetery . 72

The medicine-lodge at Santa Rosa 72

Showing how to swing the bull-roarer 88

Woman's game of double-ball 88

Papago woman, with her children, from Bisani, near Caborca 88

The clown at the great feast of Santa Rosa 92

My camp at Santa Rosa 92

Papago ethnology 96

Shrine of the children's sacrifice, seen from the west .... 104

Shrine of the children's sacrifice, near Santa Rosa 104

East of the shrine of the children's sacrifice 104

Papago ethnology no

Desert willow in bloom, June 120

Papago woman carrying water 120

The dam at Santa Rosa. Made by the Papagoes 120

Pablo, my interpreter. A full-blooded Papago 132

The old way of hauling freight in Mexico, now disappearing . 136

Bringing bat guano to Corral railroad station in the Yaqui

country 136

Yaqui chiefs who in 1909 made peace with the Mexican Gov-
ernment 136

Ancient fortifications near Trincheras, District of Altar, Sonora 140

The same side of the mountains, viewed at five miles distance

from the north 140

Antiquities of the Papagueria 142

Antiquities of the Papagueria 144

The church in old Caborca 146

Altar, seen from the west 146

A ranch, west of Altar, showing the indispensable water barrels 146

Cow eating choya 152

Cow showing vestiges of her favorite feeding grounds . . . . 152

ILLUSTRATIONS xxiii

FACING PAGE

Choya {Opuntia mamillatd) , relished as food by the cattle . . 152

Feeding on mezquite leaves 162

Papago women bringing in wood, La Nariz 162

Pictographs near La Nariz 168

Pictographs near Caborca 168

The nose of the rock which gave La Nariz its name .... 168

Ancient pottery vessels of the Papagueria. Excavated by Pa-
pago Indians near Fresnal, Arizona. {Colored plate) . . 170

Papago woman, La Nariz 174

The principal spring at Quitovac 174

Agua Dulce, a reappearance of Sonoita River 180

The channel at the beginning of Sonoita River 180

Salt loads, recently discharged. Papago pack-saddles in the

centre 184

Papago woman "dry washing" gold near Quitovac .... 184

Approaching storm. View from Pinacate top, looking south, at

sunset, January 3 200

Pinacate from the east. Commencement of the lava flow. To

the right, my camp 200

Belt of great sand-hills south of Pinacate 200

Guadalupe at the sacred cave of Pinacate 208

The lonely palo fierro 222

Greasewood bushes 222

Hauling palo fierro branches for camp fire at dusk 222

Mountain sheep, female 228

Tracks of beetles (Eleodes) on sand dune 228

Crater elegante 232

The watercourse at Tinaja de Los Papagos 232

Paso de Juana 236

Tinajas Altas 240

Clemente: Papago 240

xxiv ILLUSTRATIONS

FACING PAGE

Filling our barrels and canteens at Tinaja del Tule .... 240

Laguna Prieta, from the east 244

In the sand dunes before arriving at Laguna Prieta .... 244

Indians burning reeds and grass on the Colorado River . . . 248

Approaching Laguna Prieta 248

A stranded porpoise 256

Row of curlews on the beach 256

The delta of the Colorado River showing clumps of bulrushes

{Tulares) 256

Clayey sand cliffs of the gulf 256

A pozo at Salina Grande, seen from the east 262

The same pozo, seen from the west 262

Salina Grande in its northern part, showing many of the pozos

or tulares 262

A pozo at the edge of Salina Grande 264

A pozo at Salina Grande 264

Beautiful effects of wind and sand, north-west of Pozo del

Caballo 272

The Pinacate salt deposit 272

Leaving La Soda 286

Sierra Blanca, southern part, seen from the south 286

Waiting for his chance. At Los Pozitos 286

(Enothera trichocalyx, near Sierra del Rosario 312

(Enothera trichocalyx, near Sierra del Rosario. A fine growth 312

(Enothera trichocalyx, south of Sierra Blanca 312

Clodomiro digging for "roots of the sands" (Camotes) . . . 318

The "roots of the sands" (Ammobroma sonorce) 318

My companions, "Doctor" Pancho (to the left) and Pedro . 318

Sierra del Rosario, northern part 324

ILLUSTRATIONS xxv

FACING PAGE

Cabeza Prieta Range. An interior, looking westward. A dry

arroyo at the bottom 324

Papago: Guadalupe, my companion from Quitovac .... 344

Papago: Miguel, medicine-man from La Nariz 344

Girl. Parents: Chinaman and Yaqui 344

Boy. Parents: Spaniard and Papago 344

Pima granary. Made from twisted arrow bush 350

Hut for the isolation of women 350

Papago: "Rainbow," from La Nariz 350

Designs of Papago baskets 354

Casa Grande, Arizona, before the protecting shed was erected

Printed with map showing Papago Rancherias

MAPS

Map showing Papago Rancherias, Present and Past

Map of South-western Arizona and North-western I In pocket at
Sonora, comprising the region formerly called I e °J vo'-ume
Papagueria

NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

CHAPTER I

WESTWARD BOUND— CIVILIZATION IN THE WEST— TUCSON PAST
AND PRESENT— VISIT TO SAN XAVIER DEL BAC— THE PAPAGO
INDIAN RESERVATION— ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS— NATIVE
CEMETERIES — ANTIQUITIES — COURTSHIP OF THE NIGHT-
HAWKS

In May, 1909, I found myself on a train westward
bound for the never-never country. Many a time have I
crossed the North American continent and, coming from
the East, have noticed the change of natural conditions
that takes place west of Chicago. One begins to feel the
freedom of the West, the air is very bracing, and the great
plains inspire to deeds of energy. The few people in the
Pullman car look intent, as if they had some purpose in
life. Tourists seldom travel on these trains, but very
often consumptives are seen on their way to the land of
hope, the arid regions of the South-west around El Paso,
Tucson, and other places.

"Pardon me for calling you mister, Judge," said one
of my fellow-passengers during our conversation. He was
not a good judge himself, I am afraid. Another one to
show his good-will gave me the title of colonel, as also did
the negro porters.

2 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

"Why do you want to discover any more animals?
We have enough already," said to me a wise, elderly man
from California, connecting in some way my proposed
expedition with the discovery of animals.

We pulled out from El Paso and, in a newspaper I
had just bought, I read these rather startling lines:

COWBOYS AND SHEEPMEN FIGHT

Fierce Battle at Atchee, Colo,
sheepmen are tied up and cowboys then slaughter 3,000 head

OF SHEEP

Grand Junction, Colo., May 20. — As a result of a battle between
the sheepmen and cowboys on a contested ranch near Atchee, Colo.,
yesterday, 3,000 head of sheep were killed and two sheepmen injured,
but not seriously. According to the reports received here the cowboys
dashed in upon the herders and tied them to trees and then rode among
the sheep, killing them. The slaughter required almost a day. In
order to prevent the news from leaking out, it is said, the cowboys first
cut the telephone wires and then made their escape into the hills.
Several hours later the sheep-herders were discovered and liberated.

A mining man from the West, another of my fellow-
passengers, cultivated and intelligent, gave me light on
these high-handed proceedings by explaining the feuds
between cattlemen and sheepmen as due to the fact that
cattle will not graze on ground where sheep have fed.
According to my informant, the sheepmen are Mexicans.
The cattleowners often hire renegades to do their bloody
work. In a battle the previous year, seven men had been
killed. The aggressors are masked and escape.

This incident reminded me of a request for the for-
bearance of the audience put up on a signboard in a far

FRONTIER LIFE 3

Western town, "Don't shoot us, we are doing our best,"
and the advertisement of the barber in a mining camp,
"Ears washed without extra charge/' Such are the act-
ualities of frontier life, but we should not be led to wrong
conclusions about that great Western land in the process
of making and its virile, hearty population. The other
side to the picture is a much more important one, and it
often remains obscure to those who do not know the
actual conditions.

Arizona, which concerns us here, has good laws and
enforces them. Its public-school system is equal to the
best of the commonwealths in the eastern part of North
America. This State, which includes not only great
mines, cattle, sheep, and angora goat ranches, ostrich
farms, etc., but a steadily growing agriculture, was con-
sidered a useless waste of desert less than fifty years ago.

As for Tucson, where I made my first head-quarters,
one is surprised at the business-like, orderly aspect of
everything. In Spanish times the presidio, or fort, of
Tucson, established in 1776 on its removal from Tubac,
resisted many a siege from hostile natives, numbering at
times over a thousand. A traveller in 1863 describes it
as "the head-quarters of vice, dissipation, and crime.
There was neither government, law, nor military pro-
tection. The garrison at Tucson confined itself to its
legitimate business of getting drunk or doing nothing."
To-day on the same site one finds a cosmopolitan, well-
laid-out, and clean city of twenty-four thousand inhabi-
tants. In 1880 the Southern Pacific Railroad arrived
here, bringing it in more direct touch with the rest of the

4 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

world. The people met on the streets or in the stores
are invariably civil and they are much more so than under
the same conditions in New York, besides being more
wide-awake. The citizens are public-spirited, prosper-
ous, and progressive, and, best of all, they respect and
favor learning, as evidenced by the welcome extended to
the Desert Botanical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institu-
tion, for the study of desert plants, which was given land
in the vicinity. Tucson is the seat of the University of
Arizona which, from the modest beginning in the year
1 891 of a single building among the greasewood of the
mesa, has advanced to an institution of much importance.
It has a school of mines and an agricultural experiment
station.

The university buildings are charmingly situated in a
park of forty acres, where clusters of the native palo
verde attracted my attention, displaying in an exuberant
manner their yellow spring blossoms, which appear be-
fore the leaves. Plants peculiar to the desert region
have been planted in the garden, among them a maguey
{agave americana), the renowned mescal of Mexico, a
member of the amaryllis family to which the common
garden narcissus belongs. Members of this family the
so-called century plants, have large and beautiful spikes
of creamy white flowers which are the supreme effort of
their lives and after the production of which they die,
though able to propagate themselves by shoots. The
one in question was seventeen years old when it pro-
duced stalk and flowers. The stalk, more than twenty
feet high, grew, according to Prof. J. J. Thornber, in

In a Tucson garden

Where peace reigns supreme. San Xavier

TUCSON 5

six weeks, the maximum growth in one day having been
eleven inches. For comparison, it may be mentioned
that the Virginia creeper, one of the most rapid-growing
plants, has been known to make four inches a day, but
it needs deep and rich soil and much water.

Tucson is situated on the Santa Cruz River, a small
stream, but important because of its permanency. A
fertile valley with alluvial soil surrounds its course, which
offered the most direct route for the early Spanish ex-
plorers. It disappears in the sand before reaching the
Gila River. Tucson is 2,430 feet above sea-level. The
name is a corruption of the Papago Tjukson, meaning
"at the foot of (son) the black hill (tjuk)." The word
tjuk* designates the color black, which also by inference
means black hill. Originally Tjukson was a Papago
rancheria on the river, at the foot of a small hill near that
on which the Desert Laboratory is now situated. The
climate is hot in summer, the records of 1909 showing
that there were only three days in the year when the sun
did not shine; still it is a very healthy region, and con-
sumptives prolong life and are even cured by living here.
On January 27, 1888, Tucson, according to reports, had
four or five inches of snow on the ground.

About nine miles south of Tucson, on the fertile
plains along the Santa Cruz River, is the old church of
the Mission of San Xavier del Bac. There has been
much speculation in regard to the meaning of the word
Bac. It is the Spanish rendering of Vak, the Papago
name of the locality, and means: "where the river reap-

* There should be a slight s sound before /.

6 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

pears in the sand, a 'sink'." This fine Jesuit edifice does
not, according to Mr. Ad. F. Bandelier, date further back
than the middle of the eighteenth century, though an
attempt at building a church at San Xavier appears to
have been made in 1699. It was once a rich mission;
the architecture is the usual type of Spanish renaissance,
but better preserved than is the case with other missions
of the South-west.

The church is at present surrounded by a reservation
of the Papago Indians. The ethnologist will find these
Indians more worthy of a visit than he would anticipate,
because, owing to the half nomadic habits of the tribe,
natives of the interior districts are constantly to be found
there. From the tower of the old church I had a fine
view of the extensive wheat-fields which the Indians at
that time — the beginning of June — were harvesting, and
which presented a marked contrast to the barren appear-
ance of some settlements of poverty-stricken Mexican and
Yaqui families that live on low hills beyond the river, just
outside of the reservation. Horses were gorging them-
selves in the green fields of barley. Some of the Indians
have mowing machines that cost fifty dollars each. I was
told that the United States Government supplied agri-
cultural implements. The ambition of these natives still
reaches out for a hay-press, which would cost in Tucson
nearly four hundred dollars, and a "bog-rake." "That's
all we ask for," the Papago policeman said to me. He
had a buggy with two horses, which he lent me. They
were lazy and did not take any of the unexpected lib-
erties usual with horses raised by Indians. Sewing

IN TOUCH WITH NATURE 7

machines and many of the white man's kitchen utensils
are seen in the houses; nevertheless, the people seem
very Indian. When spoken to in English they would not
answer me, but they would in Spanish, the women always
smiling when addressed in that tongue.

Some years had passed since I had been among Ind-
ians and I again enjoyed their gentle and sympathetic
manner. When I reached there, one woman was toast-
ing green garbanzos; she was stirring the large peas in
the shallow earthen-wear dish in which corn cakes are
baked, and she hospitably offered me a few, presenting
them in a beautiful tray with interwoven symbolic fig-
ures. Another woman offered me wheat grains which
she was toasting on a potsherd. They were simple
dishes, these, but how good they tasted because they
were well cooked! None of the many civilized man's
machine-made productions of a similar kind bear com-
parison with the plain cuisine of the nimble housewife
of the red man. Although dogs here were somewhat
numerous, they did not molest. Indian dogs are seldom
fierce, but these did not even bark when we approached
the houses; they would look at us unconcernedly and
lay their heads down again.

The dwellings here, rectangular in shape, are usu-
ally adobe huts or light sheds made of sunflower stalks
placed upright, three or four sahuaro ribs, which are
tied horizontally, binding these together. The walls are
usually plastered both inside and out with mud mixed
with straw; the uprights are forked poles of mezquite
and the same kind of pole always stands in the middle

8 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

of the house to support the roof. The rafters, too, are
of mezquite, the roof consisting besides of a layer of
coarse grass called sacaton and another of wheat straw,
on top of which is placed mud. The roof is slightly
raised in the middle in order that the rain may more
easily run off; the floor is earthen. Huts made of up-
right ocotillo sticks, but otherwise similar, are also seen.
A window is rarely found in the houses. Generally
there is attached to the house a shed called in Spanish
jacal, a light roof resting on four or six forked upright
poles, which furnishes a grateful shade. Here the cook-
ing is done, and here the family is usually found sitting.
The dwellings in the rest of the Papagueria are of a sim-
ilar type, real adobe houses being seldom met with. The
dome-shaped grass huts of the natives are also not un-
common in the interior districts of southern Arizona.

Pottery making is the greatest industry among these
Indians, and wherever I went in the mornings I could
hear the soft hammering of the wooden paddle against
the clay that had been moulded into shape. A round
smooth stone is held by the other hand against the inner
wall of the vessel. All the pottery makers are women,
and their faces betray much quiet intelligence. The
pottery ware of the Papago, though of fairly good
quality, cannot be compared with that of the Pueblo
Indians, especially in regard to designs. It is useful,
though, and finds a ready sale in Tucson.

The Indians who live here number about seven hun-
dred, and they seem contented and happy. One cir-
cumstance which contributes to their happiness and

THE BLACK HILLS 9

gives great cause for satisfaction to those interested in
the welfare of the red man, is the prohibition against
selling brandy to the Indians. Through the constant
vigilance of specially detailed men the law is enforced,
at least on the reservation. I was informed that forty-
five convictions for the sale of liquor to the Indians had
been secured in the Federal Court at Tucson which had
just then closed its session. The penalty is usually two
years in the penitentiary, together with a fine, and still
there are always people willing and anxious to sell to
the Indians an abominable, poisonous liquor called
"port-wine" at twenty-five cents a quart bottle.

Near San Xavier are five hills, running more or less
in the general direction of east and west, of volcanic for-
mation, and dark in color. They are each and all called
by the Papago tjuk (black). A further characteriza-
tion is given as to which mountain is meant, by "the
black hill where the cemetery is," "the black hill on the
other side of the river," and so on. I ascended one of
these hills, situated three miles west of the mission church,
which, like a great many others of the South-west, is sur-
mounted by fortifications of ancient people. These con-
sist mainly of two rows of stone walls which at short
intervals run for about two hundred yards irregularly
along the northern side of the summit. The trail from
below cuts through them. The walls, four feet high and
ten or fifteen feet wide at the base, consist of loose stones
thrown together without any attempt at system.

On the top small enclosures, or corrals, of upright,
medium-sized stones were noted; here the ancients lived

io NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

perhaps during sieges, each family in its enclosure. I
found later that those Papagoes who lived recently in the
sand dune country of Sonora had similar, though cruder,
arrangements at their camps. In the winter, when much
grass is growing on the top of the mountain, the Indians
keep their horses there on pasture. The rest of the vege-
tation of the hill consists mainly of a bush with almost
white leaves, encelia farinosa, appropriately named the
white brittle bush by Dr. William T. Hornaday. The
leaves have the characteristics indicated by the name
and, with their stems, have a very strong aromatic odor.
The branches exude a yellow gum which the Papago
children use as chewing gum, for they indulged in this
unattractive habit long before certain classes of Ameri-
cans included it among the pleasures of life. The men
also applied it as a varnish over the painted part of an
arrow, warming it first. The rounded and symmetrical
shape of this bush is in evidence everywhere in the desert
region. The Mexicans call it herba del vaso, because the
gum is supposed to cure pain in the vaso (the left side
below the ribs). It is warmed and smeared on, and is
considered more efficacious than a porous plaster.

These bushes grow in desert fashion with such regu-
larity of intervals that they appear as if planted, and
they covered in a pleasing way the dark sides of the moun-
tain, especially toward the south, where also appeared,
here and there, the lofty columns of the giant cactus or
sahuaro (cereus giganteus). That wonderful creation of
the desert, however, does not often inhabit mountains,
for the reason that most of their soil has been washed

BURIAL CUSTOMS n

away, but on lesser, mostly volcanic hills like this one,
it is seen, though on the south side alone. Dr. D. T.
MacDougal informs me that farther south and east in
the Sonora Desert, down toward Hermosillo, before reach-
ing the plant's extreme limit of habitat, it prefers to grow
on the north side.

The hill notable for its cemetery is much smaller and
quite low, and rises back of the Indian houses. The
Papagoes wrap their dead in a new suit of cotton cloth,
and place the corpse on the ground, building up a small
artless stone chamber four feet high over it. In other
parts of the Papago country the natives make a hole in
the ground of sufficient depth to hold the dead in a sit-
ting position, erecting over it the usual protection. The
roof of the chamber consists of mezquite or palo verde
poles, taken from the deceased man's own house which,
so to speak, follows him to the grave. On top some
stones are heaped. Many such chambers are in time
joined together and form singular looking structures,
ugly and irregular in shape, being at the widest part
from twenty to thirty feet across. After the lapse of
some time the roof may fall in, allowing a peep down at
the desiccated human remains, near which may have
been placed objects such as arrow stretchers, plumes,
ornaments, and trinkets. I often later saw pottery ves-
sels that had contained food or drink standing near the
newly erected chambers. Where there are trees near by,
bundles of clothing for the use of the departed in the
next life may be seen among the branches. Four thin,
upright sticks of ocotillo, which had been placed in a

12 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

small quadrangle, protruded about one and a half feet
from the middle of the roof of some of the chambers
near San Xavier.

Such agglomerations of mortuary chambers were lo-
cated on all sides of the small hill, except toward the east,
some low down, some high up. I counted thirty-one.
Most of the Indians that die in the neighborhood are no
doubt still adding to the number and size of these com-
posite burials of the Black Hill Cemetery, though a few
make use of the Cemetery of the Baptized, as the Cath-
olic cemetery is called. On the llano, at the foot of the
fortification hill described above, is another large heap
of mortuary chambers, which the Indians call the Level
Ground Cemetery. The dead are never mentioned.
The sons, and not the daughters, inherit from the de-
ceased.

Just north of the Indian village, on the east side of
the river, are several insignificant looking earth mounds,
where pieces of antiquity consisting of stone implements,
pottery vessels, etc., are constantly being found in small
numbers. Such ancient village sites are common along
the river and adjoining arroyos, and in turning up the soil
of the river plain the Indians encounter stone axes, etc.

It may be of interest to note that in excavating a
dam, fifty miles west of Tucson, a number of ancient
earthen-ware and stone implements were found and, with
them, curiously enough, two solid balls of rubber, one
weighing eight ounces. These no doubt were made
from the now famous rubber substitute of northern
Mexico, which is produced from a plant called guayule.

Mission church of San Xavier del Bac

A kiln at San Xavier

Threshing wheat. San Xavier

NIGHTHAWKS IN SPRING TIME 13

By chewing the leaves and stalks the Indians were able
to bring out the rubber. Small quantities of this plant
are growing near Tucson.

At San Xavier, nighthawks, also called goatsuckers,
flew about in great numbers every evening at the sunset
hour, often settling on the ground among the greasewood
bushes. As is well known, their call when flying much
resembles that of the bleating of a goat, but seated on the
ground they would emit an entirely different and pleas-
anter sound, like that produced by water when being
poured out of a bottle, only very much louder. This
species was the Texas nighthawk {chordeiles acutipennis
texensis).

It was the month of June, their mating time, and
they were calling out so eagerly that slight notice was
taken of my trying to photograph them with my kodak.
On horseback they were easily approached within fifteen
feet, but it was at first extremely difficult to discover
their presence on the ground, so much does the bird
resemble its surroundings. Only by paying attention to
the exact spot where they had settled could I discover
their whereabouts; after a little while the snow-white
band under their throats would help to betray their
presence.

I was observing through my field-glass how one of
them, singing with much perseverance, swelled out its
throat each time the note was emitted, its tail and wings
trembling simultaneously, when suddenly another night-
hawk appeared behind me, darting swiftly past me to-
ward the object of my observation, and emitting at the

i4 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

same time some peculiarly sweet notes. They must have
sounded like soft whispers of love, for they were imme-
diately answered by similar notes, but briefer and of
a more decisive character, and the bird on the ground
was carried into the highest ecstasy. For a second or
two the whole bird trembled, spreading out its beautiful
tail like a fan and calling out; then it took to its wings
and the two flew away in the happy, easy zigzags in
which these birds seem to revel.

They settled on the side of a small hill near by. What
became of the aggressive female I could not ascertain,
but the male continued to sound its gurgling notes, and
I approached him repeatedly on my horse as he sat on
the shady side of the hill while the sun was setting. The
enlargement of the pure white band across the throat
made it quite easy to discover him even at a distance of
forty or fifty feet, though unfortunately the poor light
precluded the possibility of a photograph. I experi-
enced the same thrilling joy in following the birds with
my camera as I formerly did when I killed them.

Part of the reservation consists of a large and very
fine forest of mezquite trees, some of which have grown
to considerable size. The Indians help to supply Tuc-
son with wood from these trees. In making a trip
through the quiet woods, I heard everywhere the call of
Gambers quail (lophortyx gambeli), the most common
game bird in Arizona; also jack-rabbits and coyotes
were seen. The mezquites were at their best in their
light green, fresh-looking foliage, and on Sundays these
woods, which in less arid regions would not be valued

LACK OF CONSIDERATION 15

very highly, are used as picnic grounds by the hard-
working people of Tucson. Lovers of nature find com-
fort among the trees although they give little shade, but
they are the only woods within a reasonable distance of
town.

Formerly some magnificent cotton trees, near the
Indian agency of the reservation, used to be the objec-
tive point of picnic excursions. There were no less than
twenty of these old trees that gave splendid shade dur-
ing the fierce heat of the summer. The crowds, as is
their careless habit in America, used to leave newspapers,
baskets, and peanuts strewn about the ground, and they
would throw empty cans into the alfalfa fields beyond
the fence. The owner, much annoyed, posted warnings
and prohibitions which were apparently taken lightly;
for, finally, to prevent this nuisance, he resorted to the
incredibly drastic measure of cutting down those superb
trees and making firewood of them.

CHAPTER II

THE PAPAGUERIA— ITS NATURAL FEATURES— SIERRAS AND LLANOS
—SMALL RAINFALL— HIGH TEMPERATURE— REMARKABLE AD-
APTATION OF PLANT LIFE— FAUNA— THE PAPAGO, THE GREAT
PEOPLE OF THE DESERT— FIRST ENCOUNTER WITH THE
WHITES— PRESENT CONDITIONS

The Papago Indians of to-day, the principal natives
of the desert, live in Arizona to the west and south-west
of Tucson, as far as the Growler Mountains in the west,
the Gila River in the north, and the range of Baboqui-
vari in the east. In the neighboring state of Sonora,
Mexico, a number of them are scattered, roughly speak-
ing, from the Altar River, in the east, as far as Quitovac
and Sonoita in the west, most of them at present living
near the boundary line. Until recent times they were
found as far as the Colorado River. They occupy much
the same land as they did when first discovered in the
seventeenth century by the Spaniards. The region was
early named Papagueria, or, in its greater extension,
Pimeria Alta. It is part of the great arid region called
the Sonora Desert.

The main part of the Papagueria slopes down from
an elevation of three thousand feet or more, in south-
eastern Arizona, slowly, and to the casual observer im-
perceptibly, for some two hundred miles toward the Gulf
of California ; its northern part gradually descends toward
the Gila River. A striking feature in its topography is

DESERT RIVERS 17

a number of minor mountain ranges or sierras, varying
from seven to thirty miles in length, and running more
or less in the same general direction of south-east to
north-west. Their usual elevation above the sea may be
placed at three or four thousand feet, although some in
the north rise as high as nine thousand, and some in the
south are as low as a thousand feet. The mountains
have undergone a tremendous erosion and at a distance
give the erroneous impression of being entirely devoid of
plant life. Often the zigzag profile of their crests re-
sembles a flash of lightning. There is a good deal of
mineral wealth in the region, the western Papagueria
being part of a great auriferous belt that stretches south-
ward from California and Nevada. Oddly enough, the
veins of ore very often follow the same general direction
as the sierras, south-east to north-west. The geological
formation is granite and recent volcanic.

The intervening valleys, or abras, as the Mexicans
call them, are rather flat, and are formed by the detritus,
which is naturally higher and coarser along the moun-
tain sides than in the more central part, where tillable,
often extremely fertile, soil is found. Few of the so-called
rivers retain water for more than a few hours after a
downpour of rain, and the few that show permanent
water in certain limited localities, as, for instance, the
Santa Cruz River in Arizona, lose themselves in the
desert, or, as the Altar and Sonoita Rivers in Sonora,
reach the sea only after a heavy rain.

The prevalence of dry arroyos with gravelly or sandy
beds is very marked in these valleys, large or small; they

18 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

are probably evidences of a heavier rainfall than these
regions now have. They either join the larger rivers or
disappear in sand dunes or playas. Most of the water
runs into the Altar and Sonoita Rivers in the south, and
some to the Gila River in the north. As so few rivers
have a permanent water supply, water has often to be
sought elsewhere. In the mountains it is found where
natural conditions favor the gathering of rains into kettle
holes or sockets, forming what the Mexicans call tinajas
(natural tanks). They are nowhere common and some
sierras do not contain any. In the south-western part of
the Papagueria, toward the Colorado and Gila Rivers,
such tinajas are the only water to be found. Some last
only a few months before evaporating; others, having a
capacity of a few thousand gallons, may last a year or
two. In the flat " valleys" between ranges, or, to use an
equally common expression, on the llanos, enterprising
Americans have in a few places sunk wells in connection
with mining or in futile attempts at cattle raising.

At Tucson the annual rainfall of the region ap-
proaches twelve inches a year, and at Fort Yuma, on the
Colorado River, it is not quite three inches. The heat
is great during four months of the summer, a maximum
temperature as high as 1250 F. having been recorded at
Yuma. In June the surface of the soil during the day
was so heated that I could not stand on it comforta-
bly unless I wore thick-soled shoes. Professor Tourney
found that the highest temperature of the soil at the
depth of one inch near Tucson reached 1130 F. Its
average temperature for the month of July was 104. 90 F.

Sierra de la Basura, Sonora. Seen from the south-west

In the foreground are choyas (Opuntiafult;ida)

An exceptional mountain range of the Papagueria

A characteristic mountain range of the Papagueria

HOW PLANTS OBTAIN MOISTURE 19

In winter, as might be expected, the nights are cold,
the temperature frequently falling below the freezing-
point, but it is a healthy climate and in the Sonora part
of the Papagueria, Mexicans have been known to live to
the age of a hundred years or more.

The plant life of such a country must present much
of interest yet to be discovered. Science explains that
plants derive their water largely from a very thin layer
of moisture which, by capillary attraction, surrounds and
closely adheres to every particle of earth and sand in
which the plant is growing. Even after the sand has
become perfectly dry to' the touch this element of moist-
ure is present, though in a very slight degree. Where
the soil is compact this moisture, through capillary at-
traction, tends to rise to the surface, there to evaporate
from the joint action of sun and wind. If, however, the
soil at the surface be loosened, the moisture does not
rise so high nor so readily. In that way the loose soil
acts as a blanket, protecting the deeper soil from evapo-
rating. Methods have of late years been adapted which
serve to pulverize the surface, intensifying the action of
nature, and putting "dry farming" on a more rational
basis. The people of California and Kansas know about
this, and practice pulverizing.

Contrary to the popular conception of deserts, the
one in question has a vegetation, wonderfully adapted to
its environment. During the year I spent there I never
saw any plant, bush, or tree suffering from want of rain,
in spite of the fact that the winter passed without its
customary light showers. Nothing appears scorched

20 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

from the sun, for desert plants are slow to dry up as
well as slow to grow. Next to the healthy though som-
bre color of the vegetation and the scarcity of trees,
that which strikes the observer most when first travel-
ling in the desert region is the isolation of each bush or
plant. It is as if they were growing in a nursery. This
arrangement is made necessary because the plants need
large spaces from which to gather the scanty desert
moisture, sending their roots out horizontally all around,
or, if they grow in the bottoms of valleys where water is
not too far below the surface, sending the roots over fifty
feet down to reach it.

Whatever grows is adapted to resist the fierce heat
of the summer and the scarcity of rain. With some plants
their structure prevents loss of water, others have a
means of storing water, which is the case with the cacti,
the juicy pulp of which may save the thirsty traveller's
life. The water supply stored in the bisnaga, or barrel
cactus (ecbinocactus), is enough to keep it in thriving
condition for years. There is no need to die from thirst
in the desert where this cactus grows. In the coastal
region of the sand dune country it is not met with, but it
is fairly common elsewhere. Cutting off the head and
crushing the inside tissue to a pulp, one may obtain a
liquid which tastes something like soda-water. It makes
a fair substitute for water, and a canteen may be filled
with it, though it does not keep very long; however, a
new supply is usually not difficult to obtain. Horses
and donkeys also like it. Life in this way may be sus-
tained for many days. I heard of a Mexican woman who,

DESERT VEGETATION 21

having become demented on account of her husband's
death, kept herself living by this liquid exclusively for
many months until the authorities took charge of her.
Also water may be obtained by making holes in a sahu-
aro, for instance, by a pistol shot, although it is bitter
and unpleasant to the taste in comparison with the juice
of the barrel cactus. The flora of this desert, according
to Dr. D. T. MacDougal, does not show any structural
difference from species of moister regions, although their
mode of life is necessarily very different. He points out
that seeds of many of them remain wholly inactive dur-
ing the summer rains that are accompanied by intense
heat, and germinate in the winter, while others are unaf-
fected by the rains of winter and the low temperature,
and germinate in the summer.

The most common of all the vegetation here is the
greasewood (larrea tridentata). It is as characteristic of
the region as are the many species of cacti and has a
much less limited area than the latter. The greasewood
belongs to the plains, which it sometimes covers, and
gives them the appearance from a distance of vast ex-
panses of yellowish green. It is found even on the coast
and in the sand dunes half buried by the sand. People
call it useless, but the Indians and Mexicans know better,
as we shall see later on. The mezquite, the palo verde,
and the ocotillo are all useful trees to the native, while
the cacti and certain bushes and plants furnish him with
fruits, edible seeds, and vegetable dishes, a few of which
are not to be despised by a more fastidious palate.

The fauna of the region includes a great many small

22 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

rodents, and such large ones as the jack-rabbit and
the cotton-tail; further, white-tailed deer, mule-deer,
mountain-sheep, the pronghorn antelope, the lynx, the
mountain-lion, the gray fox, and the badger, as well as,
of course, the coyote. Among the birds may be men-
tioned turkey vultures, hawks, and falcons, the burrow-
ing owl and other owls, among them the diminutive
elfowl (micropallas whitneyi), the smallest of its kind in
America; further, ravens, four species of quail, pigeons,
the roadrunner, the cactus wren, fly-catchers, thrashers,
etc. Also aquatic birds, as wild geese, herons, cranes,
wild ducks, etc., are seen in certain suitable localities.

It has been found by actual experiment that small
rodents of arid regions have been able to live for two or
three years on hard seeds without water. The animals of
the desert certainly impress one as having made them-
selves considerably independent of the water question.
Holes or burrows in the ground indicating the presence
of rodents or of the badger are often found in great
numbers miles away from water, the only water being a
lonely tinaja in a distant mountain range, of which it
would seem strange that they should have any knowledge.
With the roving mountain-sheep it is different, although
Mexicans and Indians insist that they drink only when
rain falls. Similarly, I have it on the authority of an
intelligent and observant American in Sonora that while
the white-tailed deer in eastern Sonora do, those in its
western part do not drink unless it rains, which is apt
to be rarely. He has never seen their tracks at the water-
holes there, though he has observed them elsewhere and

\ '

, \£

■I

Li*

Elf-owl (Micropallas)

COTTON-TAIL RABBIT

Young gray fox, at burrow

Rattlesnake

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT 23

often not far from water. Another American of many
years' residence, who had shot deer south-east of Liber-
tad, confirmed this. Certain it is that domesticated ani-
mals of arid regions are much more enduring than those
of moister regions. Cattle will live well for months with-
out any other water than that of the juice of the cacti,
which is, besides, their principal means of subsistence.
Even horses do not come in to drink of their own free
will every day during the winter. In my travels it was
the usual thing during the winter time for our animals
to go without water every second day; such is the cus-
tom of that western desert country and its animals are
in surprisingly good condition. On one occasion, in
March, our horses and mules, travelling during the day,
had no water for seventy-six hours. It was only the
horses that suffered and this was more from the quality
of the water than from the lack of it. There is one do-
mestic animal, however, man's constant companion, the
dog, that declines to adapt itself to desert conditions.
Besides suffering from thirst, the hot soil makes its feet
sore and it does not know on which leg to stand. Even
the dogs of the Indians when travelling, especially in the
hot season, remain behind panting in what little shade
there may be under the bushes, and only continue their
journey in the coolness of the evening.

In such an environment live the Papago Indians, the
people of the desert. They are a Pima tribe and speak
the same language as the Pima Indians with some va-
riations of dialect. Their number reaches perhaps four
thousand five hundred, of whom not over seven hundred

24 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

live in Mexico. The name Papago is usually interpreted
as meaning "bean people." Their tribal name as em-
ployed by themselves is Ootam, which means "the people."
They call the Pima Indians Akimuri Ootam, "river peo-
ple," referring appropriately to their habitat on the Gila
River. The Pima call the Papago Toono Ootam, "des-
ert people."

The early Spanish missionaries were unable to exer-
cise much influence over this tribe. The indefatigable
Jesuit, Father Kino, who in the present State of Sonora
in 1687 established his first mission, Dolores, travelled
much in the Papagueria or Pimeria Alta, as far as the
Gila River and crossing the Colorado. He was treated
kindly by the Papagoes; but they have, nevertheless,
been described by the early chroniclers as wild and dan-
gerous. According to Mr. Bandelier, there is no histor-
ical record left of their customs and religion beyond that
concerning the prevalence of witchcraft, which is still
much in evidence. Even up to recent years the Papagoes
made short work of medicine-men suspected of witch-
craft.

The topographical position of the missions that were
established was such that with the forts, or presidios,
they formed a barrier against the Apaches, who were the
main obstacle to the Christianizing and civilizing efforts
of the Spaniard. Some of the missions of the "Province
of Sonora" grew to be very rich in cattle and cultivated
lands, feeding, as a recent Mexican author says, "a mul-
titude of pagans who flocked there and helped in the
work of the mission when needed." Sometimes the

PAPAGOES AS OF OLD 25

missions furnished the troops with horses. In the Papa-
gueria proper there were well-to-do missions such as
Caborca, but the nature of most of that country would
indicate that they were generally on a modest scale.
There was one in Sonoita and two on the Gila River.
In 1 751-3 there was a revolt in Pimeria Alta, and in 1840
the Papagoes again revolted against the government.

With the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767, and later
of the Franciscans in 1828, the missions as well as the
forts decayed and vanished. Changing political condi-
tions in Mexico also contributed toward their disappear-
ance. To-day the former missions interest few and are
left to the archaeologist to trace. Such has been the fate
also of the missions among the Yaqui, Opata, and Seri
Indians.

As for the Papago, the greater part of the tribe never
could be induced to live in pueblos, or villages, which was
always the policy of the Spanish missionary. In spite of
the efforts of the Jesuits and Franciscans, the Papagoes
are still living in their rancherias as of old, half nomadic
in habit, resorting in the winter to the sierras where
water is more plentiful and where their cattle, horses,
mules, and donkeys find good grazing ground. In the
summer they move to the broad, flat valleys to devote
themselves to agriculture which is made possible by the
aid of the showers that fall in July and August. They
do not usually pursue irrigation beyond the diverting of
rain water into ditches. In the summer they raise maize,
beans, watermelons, and squashes, and in the winter
when infrequent light showers usually may be depended

26 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

upon, peas, barley, and lentils may be planted, all on a
small scale, according to Indian habits. Wheat, which is
grown in November and harvested in May, is now the
most important crop.

By scooping up the earth they make dams in which
rain-water is stored for household use as well as for their
domestic animals. This is especially the case at the
summer rancherias. Of late years they have also taken
to the digging of wells, going sometimes as deep as sev-
enty feet, but they have been known to find an abun-
dance of water at a depth of only eighteen feet. Thus
the Papagoes, though sedentary Indians, have distinct
habitations for summer and winter. The aboriginal
name for the summer rancherias is ooitak, fields, called
by the Mexicans temporales. The winter rancherias are
called kihim, where there are houses (ki), and these
might be called villages. In some cases the summer ran-
cherias seem to be considered the more important habi-
tations, and medicine lodges are found at both.

As implacable enemies of the Apaches, the Papagoes
were of some assistance to the early missionaries in help-
ing the presidios to fight their savage foes, and they have
several times, says J. F. Velasco, presented the govern-
ment with ears and scalps of Apaches they had killed.
Their innate enmity to the Apaches later gained them
the favor of the Americans, who received their valuable
assistance in campaigns against these marauders. They
also gained the good-will of the Mexican Government by
assisting in the war against the valiant Yaqui Indians.

It has been the good fortune of the Papagoes to live

ADVANTAGE OF AN ARID COUNTRY 27

in a country which the white man as yet has not found
it profitable to exploit by cattle raising or, still less, by
dry farming. Therefore, they have so far been left alone
in their native country, and besides they have even come
into possession of a few wells which the Americans dug
in their efforts to redeem the land. These natives are
thus better situated than most of the tribes of North
America.

The Papagoes are above medium height, rather dark
in color, and of splendid physique. The women are in-
clined to be stout. They are a peaceful but at the same
time courageous people and show much intelligence.
They are hospitable, as becomes a desert people, and if
food is being prepared in the house when a stranger
comes, some of it is offered to him, be he Indian, Mexi-
can, or American.

In the central part of the Papagueria, especially in
the large valley of Santa Rosa and the adjacent Quijotoa
and Comobabi ranges, they live happy days without
much interference from the whites. Some of the sum-
mer rancherias astonished me by their extent of land
fenced by wooden piles and poles, but in outlying dis-
tricts many are forced to seek work from the whites, by
whom they are much valued as laborers in the making
of railroads, irrigation ditches, and in mining. The part
of the tribe that lives in Sonora is much more disrupted ;
they have lost most of their lands and are largely ser-
vants of the Mexicans, doing efficient work as vaqueros
(cowboys), miners, etc. The Papagoes also know how
to "dry wash" gold at the placer mines, many of which

28 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

are found in Sonora, and the discovery of one or two
large placer mines has been due to these Indians.

The Papagoes are by no means badly off, as a rule,
and they manage to make a good living where, so far,
the white man's efforts have failed. Their herds, adapt-
ing themselves to the arid conditions, are increasing and
making the Indian prosperous and comfortable. Good
mules now carry burdens which his wife or he himself
formerly had to toil under; cheese is made from the milk
of their cows and sold or used for their own consump-
tion, and, above all, they have wheat and maize in suffi-
cient quantities to last them all the year round. They
also have wheat and occasionally some head of cattle to
sell, obtaining in return commodities of civilized life.
The white man's kitchen utensils are being acquired,
and the women have begun to find it more convenient to
use flour than to grind the grain on the metate. No
native race, though keeping its language, can help chang-
ing its ideas under such conditions. In a very few years
there will be no more interest attached to the Papago
than to the native descendant of the once proud Aztec
in the suburbs of the City of Mexico.

Although the Papago in Arizona always insists upon
speaking his own language, still he is rapidly losing his
aboriginal beliefs, customs, and habits; even basketwork,
for which the women of the tribe were noted, is falling
into decay. Both in Arizona and Sonora the Indians
have completely adopted the white man's garments.
Some old man may still be found in the more remote
parts wearing his aboriginal apparel, consisting of a

THE PASSING OF THE INDIAN 29

breech cloth around the loins, but this is getting to be
an extremely rare sight, and it must be confessed that
the ready-made blue overalls of the white laboring man
of the West, the colored shirt, a picturesque neckerchief,
and gray felt hat with straight brim are quite becoming
to the young bucks with their superb, lithe, and supple
figures, with somewhat narrow hips. No man wears his
hair long any more, but tattooing marks in the face are
still seen on men and women of the former generation in
the Santa Rosa valley, where ancient customs and beliefs
have been preserved longer than anywhere else. In this
extensive valley are also found the most important ran-
cherias.

I was glad to have visited these Indians while there
was still something of the ancient atmosphere left in the
more remote parts of the Papagueria. The fact is that
these decided changes in the conditions of the Papago
have come about comparatively recently, perhaps during
the last thirty or forty years. As Mr. Bandelier, the great
authority on the history of the South-west, truly says,
the ethnography of Arizona has not changed much since
the year 1600. The Apaches by their raids altered tri-
bal relations, but the change that most concerns us here
is due to the settling of the country since its annexation
by the United States, and in Sonora to the discovery of
gold. Though possibly originating in a less arid region,
the Papagoes, in relation to their environment, ought to
be a no less interesting study than the country itself.

CHAPTER III

AN EXPEDITION INTO SOUTHERN ARIZONA— MY COMPANION—
THE RANGE OF BABOQUIVARI— FRESNAL— PAPAGO MANNER OF
CURING DISEASE— AT THE BOUNDARY— AN UNUSUAL RELIG-
IOUS COMMOTION— VISIT TO A SACRED CAVE— INDIAN OASIS

On June 20 I started from Tucson bound for a
journey of exploration of that part of Arizona which is
occupied by the Papago Indians. My sole companion
was Jose Xavier Pablo, a full-blooded civilized native of
that tribe, twenty-six years old. He had learned car-
pentry in Tucson, in which he was as proficient as any
white man. He was also a painter and plumber; in fact,
he could turn his hand to almost anything of a practical
nature. Thus, assisted by two other Indians, he had
put up the telephone line between Tucson and the Pres-
byterian Mission School, which he had frequented for
nine years. He furnished his own wagon and two hardy
horses bred in the desert, and before starting he shod his
horses himself. Pablo also served as my interpreter.
He was intelligent and reliable, besides being of an un-
usually even temper; during the two months we travelled
together, I do not remember ever to have known him
cross or to lose his temper.

In addition to the usual provisions, we had two can-
teens of the generous Western size, each capable of hold-
ing two and one-half gallons of water, and also one of
smaller size. Of course, the water barrel on the side of

3°

BEGINNING MY JOURNEY 31

the wagon was not wanting; also rifle, shot-gun, and rid-
ing saddle were taken along, not to mention photographic
cameras and the necessary scientific instruments. In the
outskirts of Tucson, near an old mill, we filled our barrel
and gave our horses a good drink at the clear, smooth-
flowing stream of the Santa Cruz River, which was in
such a delightful contrast to the arid landscape.

It had been my intention to go down first along the
eastern side of the Baboquivari Range as far as La Osa
Ranch, but the road turned out to be sandy and heavy,
and I was obliged to return and limit my initiatory jour-
ney to travelling along its western side. A happy-look-
ing Papago family from the suburbs of Tucson passed us
on their way to the sahuaros (giant cactus); they were
going to spend the Dia de San Juan, midsummer day, in
the country picking the much coveted fruit. An Indian
on horseback was on his way to the hot city, Tucson, for
the same celebration. Everyone to his taste!

Baboquivari is the familiar name given to an exten-
sive range south-west of Tucson. From its central part
rises a peak of somewhat striking shape which gave ori-
gin to its name, Baboquivari being a Spanish corruption
of the Papago name Vavkivolik, meaning: "mountain
(vav) narrow about the middle (kivolik)"; seen from the
south, the almost perpendicular sides of the peak appear
slightly drawn in at the base. The peak, rising nearly
fifty miles south-west of Tucson as the crow flies, can be
seen from a great distance, from the neighborhood of the
Jack-rabbit mine and the Ajo Mountains in the west, to
Altar, Sonora, in the south. Prof. R. H. Forbes, of the

32 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

University of Arizona, in July, 1898, succeeded in as-
cending it, and by an aneroid barometer the height was
found to be 7,850 feet above sea-level. The ascent was
made from the west side, and, to quote his own words,
"the extreme top of the mountain is a gentle oval about
a hundred yards across. From this lofty vantage the eye
sweeps over about three hundred miles of a terrific and
almost untouched wilderness of rocks.'' There is a small
pool on top which holds a few gallons of water after
rain. In rainy weather, water drips down on the north
side five hundred feet below the top, where several small
pools were seen.

It is perhaps at the latter place that the pond is found
which is called by the Indians Viikan Shootak, "Lasting
Water" {shootak, water), and which in the belief of the
Indians was left by the sea after the deluge. At the time
of the making of sahuaro wine for their great feasts of
the summer, people go up there to get some of this water,
after having first sung to it, to use in the wine making.

On Friday, June 25, we approached from the west
the large rancheria called Fresnal, situated among the
foot-hills below the peak of Baboquivari, which looked
more magnificent from that point of view than from any
other I have seen. The air was very pure and transpar-
ent, and I took a photograph of the peak at half-past five
in the afternoon. Just as I cast a glance backward,
before making a second exposure, I was astonished to
see that the region toward the west and south was hazy,
and I had scarcely time to make the exposure when the
haze and a light wind, moist from the sea, arrived. A

A LARGE RANCHERIA 33

few minutes later the Baboquivari Range, at a distance
of ten miles, was enveloped in a light fog. The change
was not only seen but felt, the temperature fell, and the
moisture of the air was very perceptible. As the wagon
was heavy and the road led uphill, it grew late before
our arrival, but the moon was half full, so we found our
way easily in the now quite chilly evening. The spell of
extremely dry air was broken and the season of rain
showers approaching.

We made our camp next to a big mezquite tree on a
slope among the ranches. The weird singing of a med-
icine-man sounded through the greater part of the night.
Few are those Papagoes who have lost faith in their own
doctors, and even the so-called policemen turn to them
for relief if anything ails them.

Fresnal consists in reality of three rancherias, and we
found ourselves in the middle one. They are pleasantly
situated among the foot-hills and look like villages. The
name is derived from some ash trees that grow in the
arroyo, the native name having the same meaning. Nat-
urally, the rainfall is greater here in the mountains than
on the llano and, according to local accounts, the arroyos
at times run a whole day. Occasionally the water is six
feet deep. The Indians say that the arroyos here carry
water to the Sonoita River.

The Indians of Fresnal are well-to-do; three or four
of the men are reputed to own as many as two hundred
head of cattle and fifty horses each. Wagons and good
horses were seen, and there were plenty of chickens
about. Men and women, especially the latter, looked in

34 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

good condition; the young men were not particularly
accommodating, as their interest seemed to be centred in
the corral, where they were breaking in horses, separat-
ing cattle, etc. These natives had little to sell me beyond
a fine basket used for harvesting sahuaro fruit. This
kind of basket, which now is becoming rare, is of large
size, water-tight, and is carried on the head. Its decora-
tive designs sometimes represent the sahuaro cactus.

I visited Santiago, an old hunter, who, according to
reports, used to be able to overtake deer, on the run, in
half a day, and then shoot them with bow and arrow.
In the hot weather these animals are not inclined to run
long, as their feet become sore. Santiago is still very
agile and quick in his movements and every day he goes
out shooting quail, cotton-tails, jack-rabbits, and pigeons.
His bow, which I secured, is made from that beautiful
greenish blue bush of the desert called condalia. It is
strengthened by an ox-tail hide pulled over it. The bow
string is made from the ligaments of the back of the neck
of the same animal. Arrows are made from the amole
(yucca) flower stalk, the point being of cat-claw, tied by
deer sinew.

He was also willing to be photographed. He had
been to Tucson and there had gone through the experi-
ence of the camera, so he had no objection but would
expect some gratuity. I took three or four snapshots
with my kodak, and he asked fifty cents, which I gave
him, but he demanded fifty cents for each exposure, in
which I could hardly humor him. The Papagoes all
have a great disinclination to being photographed, and

A MEDICAL PRACTITIONER 35

look upon it as being worth a good deal of money to the
one who submits to the operation. His bow and four
arrows, the result of much labor, he sold for $1.25. I
gave him some tobacco, candy, and raisins, and we sep-
arated great friends.

In the afternoon I arrived at a house outside of which
an old medicine-man, Castillo, was singing to soothe a
patient, a middle-aged, powerful looking man who was
lying on his back in front of him. His singing was ac-
companied by the rasping of two sticks; one end of the
notched one he held by his left hand, while the other
end rested against an inverted basket, and he drew the
rasping stick each time up toward him and then down,
the opposite movement to the one which we should use
to produce the same result. Near the basket on the
ground an effigy of a horned lizard had been placed; it
was made of wood and daubed with ochre, its head
turned toward the patient.

Some Indians came up smiling as if they wished it
to be understood that they did not believe in the per-
formance, for they knew that white men laugh at this.
One of them obligingly brought me a basket for sale as
well as three small ancient objects, a flint arrow-point, a
spinning whorl, and a small perforated stone disk, all
threaded on a string. In the meantime the medicine-
man, whom I watched from my horse, was finishing his
treatment by placing the effigy repeatedly on the patient's
leg, breathing and blowing at the same time. The man
had a pain in his leg which had been caused by a horned
lizard, for, according to Papago beliefs, all animals have

36 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

the faculty of making people ill except the deer and the
pronghorn antelope. To relieve the illness the doctor
had sung a song to the animal, asking it to take the
pain away. He then walked into his house; somebody
must have told him that I was a makai (doctor, medicine-
man), for a few minutes later, to my surprise, he brought
out his medicine basket, easily recognized by its long
shape, and came up to me. We sat down on the ground ;
he took off the cover and began to unpack the contents
of his tray.

Many people gathered around us and the sick man
half rose from his mat in order to turn around to see who
the stranger was. There were many remedies of a sim-
ilar character to the one just described. Images of cer-
tain animals, accompanied by appropriate ceremonies
and exhortations, are thought to relieve ailments. Like
the native doctor himself, an animal is thought to be
able to cause illness as well as to cure. The turtle
causes stiffness, the butterfly produces vomiting, and the
badger gives backache. The deer makes persons cough,
and their voices weak, and may give consumption; but
a deer-tail, placed on a stick and manipulated in the
proper way by the medicine-man, will cure that illness,
for, as Castillo added by way of explanation, "it is not
often you see the deer thin." A piece of clay taken from
a gopher's burrow is used against excessive menstrua-
tion or stomach pain. The sun is apt to give fever, and
a patient suffering thus is relieved at sunrise; during the
incantations of the doctor a small wooden image of the
sun rests on the ground, while the patient faces the east.

THE MAGIC OF A PLUME 37

The old man seemed glad to explain everything. He
was also willing to sell me some of his treasures. One
of them was a medicine-man's plume consisting of four
eagle plumes tied together so that they diverged two by
two. When used, these are held by the quill ends as a
handle and moved in the air forward and backward as
if dusting an object. When the young girls come of age
they are "dusted" in this way from all evil. The imple-
ment was new and well made, and I wanted to buy it.
"The plume is very valuable," he answered; "with us it
is at least worth as much as a horse or a cow." He
would, however, make it easy for me by letting me have
it for $2.50. I presented him with a pouch of tobacco
and a handful of candy, the cause of much interest to his
little grandchildren who had been clinging to the good-
natured old man all the time that he was explaining.
He also promised to show me the so-called Montezuma's
Cave, in the peak of Baboquivari, some day.

In a light wagon which Pablo borrowed we started
on an excursion south, to be possibly extended beyond
the border to Pozo Verde. The day was moist and
warm. We passed several extensive summer rancherias
or temporales as they are usually called. The rude
fences of mezquite looked substantial and the Indian
ranches gave an impression of prosperity. At two places
there were dams also fenced in, but they were empty;
they had been made by scooping up the rich soil with
scrapers and horse-power. The water in such ponds
lasts only three or four months and is not for irrigating
purposes, but solely for the use of men and beasts. The

38 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

Papagoes do not bathe in them; during the rains they
get their baths in the arroyos, men and women bathing
separately. There was not a soul to be seen anywhere,
as the Indians were still at this time, the end of June, in
or near the mountains with their cattle and horses.

From a lately established summer rancheria, called
San Miguel, southward, the country assumes a different
aspect, forming beautiful grassy plains or downs. The
mezquites, far apart and small, take the place of grease-
woods and the cacti have almost disappeared. There
was an abundance of very dry grass of a whitish yellow
hue. As the air was laden with moisture, it was to be
expected that the coloring of sky and mountains would
be fine toward sunset. The western sky beamed with
the translucent color of light yellow or orange, while the
mountains, which during the glaring light of the day had
shown no color beyond a dull gray, appeared deep blue.
Much more intense than the air-blue and complementary
to that of the setting sun, the color extended to all the
mountains around the great bajio (basin), while at its
western edge a long narrow strip of light green, due to
an unusual growth of mezquites, added to the variety.
To most people it is not apparent that there is much col-
oring in any landscape except that caused by inherent
qualities, as by vari-colored leaves of trees; if they would
lie down on the ground and view the scenery horizon-
tally, they would probably have their eyes opened from
this unusual vantage point.

There is a well fifteen feet deep at a lonely Indian
ranch just on the border, but as the place was found to

UGLY EFFECTS OF CIVILIZATION 39

be temporarily deserted, and there would be no one to
look after our wagon, we had to abandon our intended
trip to Pozo Verde, the largest Papago rancheria at the
present time in Sonora. Its name, Green Spring, has
the same significance in the Papago language, and the
locality is important in the native mythology. Baboqui-
vari rises about a thousand feet above the llano near
the boundary line, losing itself in Mexico in low ranges
and mountains.

On our return we made a detour into a rancheria
called Sepanovak ("Smell of the Coyote "), which was sit-
uated in a narrow valley of the Baboquivari Range. It
had been settled of late years and was small and unat-
tractive. Discarded clothing was lying about, and the in-
habitants looked like poor white people, although they
owned lots of live stock. Judging from the fine looking
fat horses and cattle down on the plains, a different opin-
ion would have been formed of the owners; it was some-
thing like the disappointment one feels when a smart
turnout of horses with driver and footman discloses or-
dinary-looking people inside the carriage. Natural and
harmonious conditions are the only ones that count in
life.

One interesting family, that of Ramon Cachora, lived
a little further up the valley from here, he, his two sons
and his son-in-law having been leaders in a religious
movement of a white man's stamp. They were so-called
educated Indians, and a daughter of his had been to
Carlisle. It was an anomalous case, for, strange to
say, they had become converts to the revivalism of the

4o NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

prophet Dowie, who a few years ago made such a stir in
various parts of the United States. One of his agents,
a lady in Phoenix, had been instrumental in bringing
this about.

To understand this conversion, it must be remem-
bered that all Indians are of a religious disposition. In
their aboriginal state, while never giving up their own
beliefs, the Indians have little objection to any foreign
creed; the more religion the better for them. They are
quite sincere about it. When these Papagoes heard of
the strange teaching of the modern Elijah, it appealed to
them. The world was coming to an end and they were
going to get ready; people sold what little they owned
and settled in the Comobabi Mountains awaiting the
arrival of the new Messiah. There were from forty to
fifty souls all told, men, women, and children. Ramon
Cachora, who was well off, sold his two hundred head of
cattle; he became the leader and they sustained them-
selves mainly with the proceeds of this sale. There was
no white man with them. They had everything in com-
mon and their rules were strict; brandy and tobacco
were forbidden. Sometimes they had services lasting the
entire day. For three years they waited for the Messiah
to come; then hunger broke up the sect.

A herd of horses and a number of cows, many with
calves, that had come in to drink the night before, walked
off again in the morning to pasture in the plains some
six or eight miles away. I asked a man how long a time
it would be before they returned and he answered: "A
few will come next day, most of them the day after to-

AN ANCIENT FORTIFICATION 41

morrow in the afternoon, and some will not return until
the third day." It was the hottest time of the year— the
end of June.

Three miles from here, just about where the llano
begins, there rises a small hill, four hundred feet high,
called La Ventana. On the west side it has been forti-
fied by the ancient people with half a dozen or more
stone walls of the usual description. The walls are per-
haps more massive than is the case at most places. The
fortifications had a remarkably fresh look about them, as
if they had been in recent use. On top, where blocks
had been broken off to form walls and parapets, the un-
derlying rock still looked as untouched by the hand of
time as if the work had been done within two years.
Circular or square enclosures of the usual type are seen
on a natural terrace near the top. A fairly well con-
structed track leads up to the summit where a rattle-
snake was resting in a cool cavity. A ground-squirrel
was noticed, and on the hill-side two camping places of
the gray fox were observed, each under a small bush, the
ground having been worn quite smooth.

The vast plain is impressive from the top; the ranges,
enveloped in a blue haze, appeared small, Comobabi and
Quijotoa in the north-west being the nearest. To the
right of the Comobabi Range, in one place only, toward
north north-west, the view was unobstructed as far as
the eye could see. In the south-west the small hills near
Sonoita were visible. The many arroyos on the west
side of the Baboquivari Range are worthy of note; they
are short, quite deep, and impossible for wagons to cross

42 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

until they widen out into the plains. For this reason the
road, such as it is, from Fresnal southward makes a
detour west.

At the well of Fresnal our horses, having been with-
out water for twenty-two hours, each drank nine buck-
etfuls. The bucket was not large, but contained more
than a gallon. A visit was made to the so-called Monte-
zuma's Cave, once sacred to the Papago as the principal
habitation with which tradition credits Sihu, also called
Iitoi, the most important mythical personage of the
Papago mythology, being their elder brother as well as
creator of the world. The cave is called Elder Brother's
House (in Papago, Sihuki; ki, house). It is situated at
six miles' distance from Fresnal. We climbed nearly
one thousand feet, and on the south side of a hill, below
the peak, our guide, the medicine-man, pointed out the
entrance to the sacred place, half hidden among bushes.

It was closed with a wall of loose stones and was so
small that a man could only squeeze through with diffi-
culty. The cave was found to be spacious and well
formed. At one corner was deposited several hundred
arrows, upright in a bunch, with nothing but the wooden
part remaining. No flint points were visible. There is
another cave on the east side of the Baboquivari Range,
discovered lately by Mr. Jefferson Milton, where a con-
siderable number of obsidian-tipped arrows were secured,
one of which is reproduced at page 96.

Though a few showers had fallen lately, still no grass
had yet made its appearance and travel began to be dif-
ficult. The Indians had very little to sell in the way of

Peak of Baboquivari

Ocotillo ( Fouquieria splendens)

Entrance to the sacred cave, at foot
of peak of Baboquivari

Barrel cactus

GRATEFUL RAIN 43

straw, barley, or wheat, the usual feed for animals. If
our horses had not been hardy creatures of the desert,
we should not have been able to move about much at
that time of the year. I decided to return to Menager's
store, at present called Indian Oasis, where we might
succeed in securing forage.

A Papago was an efficient clerk in the store. Near by
was a small village of civilized Indians; the women, who
had been to school near Tucson, after a while responded
in English, very softly spoken. A phonograph, which
was the only one I saw in the Papagueria, was produced
and operated for my entertainment. Many Indians came
into the store from the neighboring country. As they
were not in the habit of carrying provisions, they were
hungry and looked it. I treated them to a generous
breakfast and my reward was the information which
they volunteered concerning one of their festivals, con-
nected with the gathering of the fruit of the sahuaro, the
giant cactus. It was to take place the next day at a
rancheria called Noria, situated in the Comobabi Moun-
tains at no great distance, and I decided to go there.

Opportunely for my journey, in the evening of July
4 unusually heavy rain fell during forty-five minutes, the
storm making short work of my tent which I decided to
leave behind here on account of its being so large and
inconvenient. Nearly an inch of rain must have fallen,
bringing about in this brief space of time a remarkable
change in the appearance of the landscape. The dry
creek ran with water and the playa below was changed
into a shallow lake, the frogs filling the air with their loud,

44 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

welcome voices. Next day in the afternoon we pulled out,
though the ground, soaked with water, made travel heavy.
Our wagon was stuck for half an hour, but after that we
made our way fairly well, for the night's rain was found
to have extended only a couple of miles westward. We
arrived at our destination at dusk.

CHAPTER IV

THE GIANT CACTUS OR SAHUARO— THE SAHUARO FEAST AT NORIA
—DANCING AND SINGING— THE MEDICINE LODGE— TOBACCO-
WELL RECEIVED— DISSERTATIONS WITH THE INDIANS— AN
ADVENTURE— AN ANCIENT FESTIVAL— NATIVE ORATORY— OB-
JECTION TO PHOTOGRAPHY— ARTISTIC GIFTS OF A NATIVE

The giant cactus (Cereus giganteus), or sahuaro,
which is the direct and indirect cause of such festivals as
the one we were to witness, is by far the most noteworthy
representative of plant life in the desert, being, in fact,
one of the most remarkable plants on the globe. It
reaches a height of forty to fifty feet, sometimes even
more. At times the sahuaro appears as a single trunk,
like a column, but more often branches of nearly the
same thickness protrude from it, stretching upward arms
lifted as in appeal. The evergreen trunk and branches
have deep longitudinal furrows or flutes, armed with
spines and wonderfully adapted for retaining moisture.
Acting in a manner similar to that of the bellows of an
accordion, these close together during drought and open
again to receive moisture.

It avoids the great belt of sand dunes that stretches
along the upper part of the Gulf of California, from Port
Lobos westward, and ceases to appear south of the Gila
Range and Sierra Blanca. Often a single column, the
only one on a whole mountain, appears on top, re-
sembling a sentinel on guard. At other times such a

46 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

single column has found the means of existence on some
terrace on the mountain side, reminding an imaginative
traveller of the ruins of a temple in Greece. Along the
mountains east and south of Sonoita, Sonora, this cactus
attains its most luxuriant growth. Here as well as near
other ranges impressive forests of these gigantic, singular
structures of the plant dominion appear, calling to mind
creations from the carboniferous period.

In May the tips of the trunks and branches produce
a multitude of superb cream-white flowers. Toward the
end of June the famous sahuaro fruit appears, the size
and shape of a large hen's egg. A spiny skin which is
easily removed protects the juicy, crimson, and fleshy sub-
stance in which numerous black seeds are imbedded.
Although possessing not quite as much flavor as the
related and more famous pitahaya fruit of Mexico, the
sahuaro is a palatable relish in the excessively hot and
dry climate, containing also, like the pitahaya, consider-
able nourishment.

The violent storms of the desert make no impression
on the giant cactus. However, one wonders that it can
exist at all, since the fruit and the plant itself prove in
many ways such an attraction to animals. As soon as
the sweet fruits ripen they are attacked by birds, while
those that fall to the ground are eaten by hungry and
thirsty animals, which prevent the seeds from germinat-
ing. The woodpeckers make large cavities in the juicy
pulp of the trunk, the plant protecting itself by growing
a hard tissue all around the cavity, in which various
kinds of owls, falcons, and fly-catchers make their nests;

THE USEFUL SAHUARO 47

here also bees deposit their honey and bats make their
homes. Sometimes rabbits attack the stem to get at the
juicy pulp.

To the Indians the sahuaro is invaluable, and by
tacit understanding they consider it a crime to cut one
down. The grateful fruit comes at a time when most
needed, and the Indians leave their habitations to camp
among the sahuaro as long as the season lasts. Not only
does the fruit then furnish them with their principal
means of subsistence, but the greater part is boiled down
to a sirup for future consumption in the winter, serving
also as material for an intoxicating drink, which is used
at the sahuaro festival. The seeds, too, are eaten after
having first been ground on the metate, and they taste
better than would be expected ; the Indians also feed their
fowls with them and many sackfuls are brought back to
the houses after the sahuaro harvest. The wooden skele-
tons or ribs of the sahuaro furnish the Papago with light,
strong, and elastic building stuff, and from the same ma-
terial he makes the long stick which is needed to bring
the fruit down from its lofty elevation, coloring the pole
red with the juice of the fruit. Also chicken coops, chairs,
traps, and similar articles of the household are manufact-
ured from sahuaro ribs. Even the wooden tissue bags
produced by the woodpeckers are made to serve as water
bottles or drinking vessels.

So important a part does this cactus play in the life
of the Papago that their year begins with the sahuaro
harvest. The season lasts from the middle of June till
the middle of July. Every rancheria is supposed to make

48 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

a feast for the occasion, which will insure rain and good
crops. An essential part of the festival is the drinking
of wine, produced by mixing the sahuaro sirup in a cer-
tain proportion with water and allowing this to ferment.
The name of this greatest festival of the year is navaita,
derived from navait, their word for the wine.

Elder Brother, so their tradition runs, created the
sahuaro by placing beads of his perspiration in the
ground. He walked in ceremonial circuits around it for
four days, and the plant began to give fruit. He also
made a jar in which he put the juice of the fruit which
he mixed with water. "Let us see if we can not make
rain with this to refresh the thirsty soil," he said to the
jar. And its contents became wine, and it began to
rain, as he thought it would. Therefore, to this day, the
Papago make sahuaro wine and celebrate a great feast
in accordance with Elder Brother's commandments. The
wine was given by him in order that they might get
drunk, and then rain would follow.

On our arrival at the rancheria of Noria we learned
that the wine making had been started that morning.
The festival was to begin in the evening, the singing and
dancing lasting as usual for two nights, by the end of
which time the wine would be ready for consumption.
An hour after dark, as we were preparing our supper, a
loud Indian voice from the other side of the arroyo on
which we were camped sounded forth in the dark, still
night, inviting people to gather for the festival. Stand-
ing in front of the medicine lodge, facing the east, the
herald announced over and over again: "Darkness has

Sahuaro, or giant cactus {Ccrcus giganteus)

Single-column sahuaro

Sahuaro, dry, showing its wooden
structure

BEGINNING THE FESTIVAL 49

already covered us a good while, it is now time to begin
to sing and dance, and everybody bring tobacco."

We had three Indian guests at our meal, and after-
ward we all went over to the dancing place, or, as the
Indians call it, the singing place (njuikot; njui, sing), a
level piece of ground always found in front of the medi-
cine lodge. In the dim light a long string of eagle plumes
hanging across the space between two upright poles from
east to west could be discerned. Near the western pole
a solitary fire was burning; two medicine-men were sit-
ting there with their backs turned toward it and facing
the east. Behind the fire, in the west, was the lodge,
and in front of this stood a jacal, the light shed invari-
ably seen near the dwelling or lodge. They sat there
immovable in mystic contemplation of rock crystals and
queer objects which were spread before them on the
ground, and by the aid of which rain is procured ; among
them, my informant said, was a small stone, translucent
and bright, which few have seen. If rain is not near, the
stone is very warm and has to be cooled and purified, an
operation which the medicine men were about to under-
take.

My attention was next attracted to a long basket of
enormous proportions placed between east and west on
the ground at the foot of the western pole, near the doc-
tors. It was of the same oblong shape as the ordinary
medicine basket of so many tribes, and serves as a recep-
tacle for the sacred paraphernalia of the lodge. Here
the string of eagle feathers hanging near by is kept dur-
ing the year. It is provided with a cover of the same

5o NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

material, considered by the Indians as its blanket, which,
when the basket is in use, is placed on the ground for it
to "sit" on.

Around these holy men and the fire and the long
string of plumes that stretched across, danced men and
women, holding each other by the hand and moving
around in a circle. They marched in time, with firm steps,
placing left foot behind right, and proceeding in this way
against the sun's apparent movement. They all sang in
unison and in time with their steps, the leader swinging
a rattle, and he and those nearest to him exerting their
lungs to their fullest capacity. There were always two
or three walking ahead of him, as everybody was eager to
be near the leader in order to catch the tune. In this
advance guard there was also a female leader, a soprano.
What a wealth of songs there is among these Indians!
During the two nights new songs were presented all the
time, not only new texts but even new, though somewhat
similar, melodies. People were sitting or lying around
the circle of dancers, stepping into it whenever their fancy
moved them.

When four songs had been sung, taking about an
hour, a short pause was made, and the performers would
sit down, many of them smoking. After a few minutes,
only the leader would rise, and, standing in front of the
jacal with his face toward the east, he would sing one
verse of the song they were going to take up next, this
time in a low voice, just to refresh their memories. Then
he would step forward, dancing again and bursting forth
into loud singing, immediately joined by the multitude in

SAHUARO WINE-MAKING 51

their enthusiastic efforts to make an impression on the
gods.

The next morning, when I went to inspect the place
in daylight, I found the leader and other functionaries
sleeping peacefully on the ground under the jacal in front
of the lodge, tired from their exertions of the night. I
was permitted to enter the lodge, where large earthen-
ware jars were standing full to overflowing with the pre-
cious sahuaro fluid. A slight cavity had been dug in the
ground for each jar, serving as a receptacle and covered
with branches of greasewood upon which the jar rested
neatly. The reason for this arrangement, according to
the Indians, was to keep the fluid warm and because
they had always done it in this way. Heavy spume was
rising from most of the jars, showing that fermentation
was taking place. A fire was kept up in the lodge in
order that the temperature of the air should be even and
favorable for fermentation. The solemn function of
mixing the sahuaro sirup with water takes place in the
morning hours under the jacal outside.

The lodge was a circular, dome-shaped grass hut, the
ancient form of Papago habitation, examples of which
are still frequently seen in the central part of the Papa-
gueria. The lodge, however, is larger than the dwelling-
house, hence its name Kuki, "Big House. " (Ku, big,
large.) This was rather a small one, twelve feet in di-
ameter and six feet high, and scrupulously clean inside.
The framework of these primitive houses consists of mez-
quite posts; from two to four forked uprights in the mid-
dle support the dome-shaped roof, which is made of sa-

52 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

huaro ribs, surmounted with greasewood twigs and some
large coarse grass called sacate Colorado. The grass is
kept in place by hoops of ocotillo inside and outside,
placed at intervals of eight or ten inches. The top of
the house is covered with earth.

The entrance is small, usually only two and one-half
feet high and two feet wide, and is provided with a grass
door which, when not in active use, leans up against the
wall outside. To get in or out one is obliged to crawl on
hands and knees. The fire is made in the centre, and
there is no other escape for the smoke than the door,
there being no window; as the people inside generally sit
on the ground, the smoke does not trouble them; besides,
as the house is warm, a large fire is not needed. In the
summer these dwellings are delightfully cool, affording
also excellent protection against the violent, though short-
lasting, rain-storms of the desert.

Usually a light stockade of ocotillo and other kinds
of poles runs around the lodge to prevent the cattle from
eating the grass of which it is made. In this house the
youth are instructed in the traditions and beliefs of the
tribe, and here is discussed everything of more or less
importance, meetings being held every evening of the
year. The man who is in charge of the lodge and its sa-
cred objects is elected for life. He lives near by and is
called Keeper of the Smoke, which means tobacco smoke.
The name for tobacco is viv; when used for certain sa-
cred purposes it is called coyote tobacco {pan vivuka).
The young plants are covered with greasewood branches,
but the Papagoes nowadays rarely grow the weed and

SIMPLE MINDS 53

usually commercial brands have to be resorted to. It is
smoked in corn husks. The leaves of viopoli, a bush in
the foot-hills, are also sometimes smoked.

In the afternoon the leading men began to wake
from their slumber and, as there were many features of
the feast I desired to have explained to me, I induced
them to have a conference. Outside of the house of the
Keeper of the Smoke there was some convenient shade
and, stretched on a mat with the rest, I had a couple of
hours of very interesting conversation. Many years
amongst the Indians gave me some knowledge of the
fundamental traits of their religious ideas, which evi-
dently very much surprised those present. They had
such fine faces, full of determination and sincerity!
Ragged and poor though these people were, I could not
help admiring the expression of their countenances, es-
pecially those of the principal men, flushed with enthu-
siasm attendant on the festival. They gave me clear
and unequivocal answers. When I had finished all my
questions one medicine-man said: "I suppose he is one
of those white men who want us to give up all our an-
cient beliefs and customs." Assured on this point, they
said they were glad to have me remain at the rancheria
as long as I wished. They also informed me of a cal-
endar record preserved by a man who lived in the Babo-
quivari Range. Of this I made a note as the object for
an excursion.

"Might I see what was inside the long basket on the
dancing places ?" I asked. This they could not very well
do. Few of the Indians themselves had seen it, they

54 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

said, and they were not in a position to show me; per-
haps the makai (medicine-men), who were coming to-
night to tell when the rain would arrive, would show me.
But to see those things was a risky affair, connected with
possibilities of harm to the beholder. As we were re-
turning to camp Pablo said to me: " Probably those
Indians never before spoke like that to a white man."

The rest of the day was spent in a house to house
canvass and many baskets were bought. In the even-
ing Pablo and I again walked over to see the dancing
which had commenced anew at dusk. He soon joined
the dancers and evidently the "old Adam" reasserted
itself within him, for he danced with fervor the whole
night.

As one sees everything better by taking part oneself
in the proceedings, I, too, broke into the circle, grabbing
those next to me by the hand. The orthodox way is to
intertwine the fingers as one may see sailors do when
they are ashore, or peasant girls of Norway when going
to a dance in their finery. My white dress made me a
conspicuous object in the dark night, and my dancing
and singing evoked merriment among those sitting around.
There was no difficulty in getting into the right tune,
and my partners on either side, as well as the rest of
those actively engaged, were too serious about their work
to be distracted.

Just about the time that I entered into the perform-
ance, the medicine-men who were sitting with their legs
crossed in front of the fire began to show activity. One
of them suddenly bent forward and put his mouth near

HOW TO MAKE IT RAIN 55

the sacred translucent stone that was lying before him;
then he began to breathe forcibly and to blow over it,
emitting at the same time a peculiar sound, which made
it difficult for me to refrain from laughing. The stone,
which had become warm through the long drought, was
now being cooled and cleaned that it might attract rain.
For fully ten minutes he remained thus at work ; then
both medicine men stood up and, holding eagle plumes
in their hands, began to run around inside our circle, all
the time thrusting the plumes upward toward the sky to
draw rain-clouds. It is curious to reflect that Indians as
intelligent as the Papago should so absolutely believe in
the power of the medicine-men to make rain. In regard
to man's relations to nature, the Indians have, since the
discovery of America, learned nothing and forgotten noth-
ing, and it will take many centuries to change their mode
of thinking.

After an hour's dancing I went alone to my camp
where my sleeping cot was awaiting me. It is a folding
one and, when put up, stands high above the ground,
which is convenient both in case of moisture of the
ground and as a precaution against noxious creatures,
such as scorpions, etc. The moon was shining, the night
was warm, and I went to sleep under the open sky, as my
custom is in this climate, rejoicing at the feeling of secu-
rity one has while among Indians who have not been too
much with whites. I must have been sleeping quite a
while when I was awakened by the violent barking of
my dog. On opening my eyes I beheld the disagreeable
sight of a tall, half-nude Indian standing beside me in

56 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

the moonlight. " Companero" he said, ejaculating a few
more words in unintelligible Spanish, at the same time
thrusting forward a big open bottle with bright red con-
tents, the smell of which at once made me aware of the
situation. He was offering me sahuaro wine as a proof
of his esteem. But he might have chosen a more reason-
able hour for his hospitality, so I bluntly answered : "No;
I will have nothing until I get up." He disappeared
among the bushes as quietly as he had come; in fact, he
did not give me time to ascertain what had become of
him, and it seemed like an unpleasant dream. However,
being desirous of getting some rest before the ceremonies
that were sure to take place at sunrise, I fell asleep again
after a while.

The wine did not mature as early as expected, and in
the morning one of the principal men told the people to
gather when the sun would be half-way between noon
and sunset, when the culmination of the feast would take
place. One of the Indians confided to me that the people
thought I was all right; I danced with the proper step.
Gradually crowds began to assemble, many of the young
men on horseback; slender of figure but above medium
height, they were of prepossessing appearance, sitting
erect and following well the movements of the horse.
Everybody was in his best attire, all adopted from the
whites, and everybody, both men and women, looked
clean. But there was no hurry about anything. After
a few hours passed in this way, the Keeper of the Smoke,
who was the general manager of all the proceedings, was
seen to spread out blankets and mats on the dancing

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A NATIVE BANQUET 57

place, at each of the four corners of the world, to use
the Indian expression. The principal men seated them-
selves on the mats toward north and south; the two
medicine-men sat down on the eastern mat, and the
Keeper of the Smoke on the western.

The multitude surged forward and took their seats,
on the ground, I among them, all forming an imposing
square that symbolized the four corners of the world,
each of the four mats in that way remaining in the mid-
dle of a line of the square. Hardly had we seated our-
selves before the vessels containing the wine were brought
inside of the square from the lodge by four young men,
each one carrying a vessel. This wine should have been
carried in those large, beautiful, water-tight baskets of
native workmanship, but, alas, there was only one of
those, an indication of the declining days of the tribe.
The remainder of the receptacles were replaced by three
inappropriate looking buckets bought in the white man's
store, more practical, to be sure, but infinitely more ugly
than those superb baskets decorated with artistic designs.
The young men went straight across the dancing place
to the two medicine men in the east, who immediately
set to work to bless the contents, driving out any evil
spirit that the vessels might contain. This they accom-
plished by making slow strokes with the palms of the
hands around the vessels from in front back toward
themselves. They also sacrificed a little of the contents
to the gods, dipping their hands into the liquor and
throwing some of it about. It was done in a desultory
fashion, showing, as one man explained to me, that they

58 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

did not know their business well. The tribe, as I have al-
ready said, is daily losing its ancient beliefs and customs.

The distribution now began. The young men went
in pairs, stopping before every one in his turn; each of
the two would dip a gourd into the wine and hand it
over. The recipient would, before drinking, lift it up
toward the young man, saying: "Navatsh!" (friend!); if
he were a relative, he would address him by the name of
the relationship. It was evident from the beaming smile
on the faces of those who drank that the wine awoke
much satisfaction. My turn also came and I must con-
fess that in this dry and hot climate, the beverage, when
well made, and coming cool from the jars, does not
taste at all bad, though I soon grew tired of it.

Four times in this manner had the young men made
the rounds of the square, offering the wine quickly and
with much precision, when two old men appeared on
the scene. They advanced from the lodge, holding each
other by the hand, fingers intertwined, and, beginning at
the east, went in turn to each of the different mats where
the principal men were sitting. The mat is called vdaki,
which connects us with the mythical long ago when the
hunter put up a small round house of that name near
water, in which he stayed during the heat of the day.
At each corner of the world is a vaaki or hunter's lodge.
At each such "house" a long speech was made by one
of the two old men, whose name was "Mocking Bird
Talk." Addressing the most important man on the mat
by his degree of relationship, or as a friend, as the case
might be, he tells him to look for a white, shining house

PERSUASIVE POWERS 59

in the east, from where black clouds come. "The black
clouds have many inclinations in different directions and
we can, by our singing, turn them toward us and influ-
ence the winds to make this poor earth moist" he says.
Then he asks for a song, and in response the group sit-
ting on that mat sings about rain. After having in the
same way solicited songs from the rest of the groups,
seated at the cardinal points, and received immediate
and enthusiastic answers by invariably well-executed
songs, the old men return to the lodge.

They immediately, however, come back for a similar
round of visits, the speaker this time asking for an ex-
pression of friendship for himself. Every one answers
"friend!" or gives him his degree of relationship. Next,
the groups on the four mats sing in turn and, after that,
wine is again offered around four times.

The pair of old men reappear and the speaker again
admonishes those on the mats to look for the shinin?
house in the east, where the black clouds are. A won-
derful cloud reaches up to heaven and in it lives the
mocking-bird. He comes out, jumps around, puts his
head back and talks. "Through your strength," he
says, addressing the mocking-bird as if present, "come
all the clouds that are, all the winds that are, all the
lightning, all the thunder. From all the mountains
spring up other clouds joining the rest. It matters not
how wide the earth is, the clouds touch all the sides.
It matters not how many sierras there are, the clouds
cover them all. It matters not how many arroyos there
are side by side, the clouds cut across them; nor does it

60 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

matter how many small arroyos there are, the clouds
cover them all. When the rain comes down, the flood
carries along the sand and the loose trunks and the
sticks and fallen branches, piling it all up. The clouds
and the winds get up and stop in the west, whence the
rain spreads over this poor earth. When shall we see
this again ? " The speech was briefly answered at each
mat, and from either side the friendship which they all
felt for each other was emphasized. The singing was
quite enjoyable and there was a pleasing atmosphere of
antiquity about the proceedings. Finally, the chief arose
to make a speech in which he warned every one to be-
have properly while partaking of the wine which had
been brewed in the houses.

The official part of the festival now being over, people
repaired to the houses, where the sahuaro wine flowed
through the evening and night. Friends from the neigh-
boring country added to the merriment. Both men and
women become intoxicated on such occasions, and, for-
merly, quarrels of long standing were settled at the feast
according to the laws of the vendetta. Murder used to
be of frequent occurrence, but, to prevent the possibility
of quarrels ending in a fatal way, the chiefs of our time
are wise enough to gather up beforehand all the knives,
pistols, and rifles, returning them to the owners after the
conclusion of the festival.

It should be noted that in March, about the time
of the equinox, a ceremony, accompanied by singing, is
performed to insure a good sahuaro harvest. Seeds of
the fruit are ground and put in a basket into which also

UNUSUAL VIEW OF PHOTOGRAPHY 61

four sticks, taken from the dried plant, are placed, one
at each cardinal point. Sitting around the basket,
people spend a night singing, while the medicine-man
makes prognostications for the coming harvest. The
seeds are eaten by those present, and the four sticks are
given to four persons who later, when the season comes
around, leave them at the foot of a sahuaro.

As soon as the Indians were rested enough after the
celebrations that ended the festival, I had an interview
with Chief Alvina, whom I found to be conscientious
about the information he imparted, and in a charmingly
sincere way not afraid of telling anything. His father,
who had died two years before, had been chief before
him. The Papagoes declined to tell anything about their
beliefs and ancient customs, he said, but he could see no
harm in letting strangers know about them. Unfortu-
nately for me, his knowledge of those matters was not
commensurate with his liberality. Furthermore, he al-
ways told his people that there was no harm in being
photographed. Their fear he could not comprehend.
He had himself been photographed many times, and he
never inquired as to what they were going to do with
his photograph.

It was a very exceptional stand he had taken; as a
rule, the Papagoes have the greatest objection to the
camera. They are not afraid of it, but are intensely
annoyed at the photographer's efforts, because, in their
opinion, part of themselves will be taken away and will
always remain behind after death, causing much dis-
turbance to the departed, who in that way will be, so

62 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

to speak, only three-quarters complete in the other life.
Usually the people ran away from my kodak, and it
was extremely difficult to photograph them unawares, as
they are very keen and in a way scent the impending
danger. A young, good-looking man, of whom I asked
permission to take a quick photograph, surprised me by
answering in the affirmative. He entered his house to
get ready for the fray, saying to his wife, "I am going
to have my picture taken. I am a man and I am not
afraid of seeing myself after death."

I kept the honest chief till late in the afternoon, when
he was obliged to go to his sahuaro camp, near the south
end of the Quijotoa Range. He offered to return the
following day, but I thought it better to look him up
later on. There was present at the interview a man
who had acted as a singing shaman at the feast, Juanito
by name. He owned a few head of cattle and some horses,
and had been much with whites, hauling wood or doing
similar work, but in spite of this he spoke no English
and only a few Spanish words. It was he who in the
excitement of the feast had waked me up in the middle
of the night. Some twelve years ago Juanito had seen
a Mexican make a drawing, and last year it had occurred
to him to try his hand at this accomplishment, which
had made a strong impression on him. Considering that
this was his first and only effort with the pencil, the prod-
uct was by no means discreditable. His brother posed
for him on horseback for half an hour, in order that
Juanito might get a clear conception of the subject he
was going to draw. Strange to say, he did not draw

■

Picture drawn by an untutored Papago

Using the ancient hoe

Mother with child in cradle. Aktjin

AN UNTUTORED ARTIST 63

him then, but during the following three days he worked
at the drawing from memory in his spare time, being
mostly occupied in his field and with his cattle. After
long deliberation, he finally consented to part with the
picture which is shown on plate. The horse is painted
with red ochre and the necktie is blue, the color having
been bought in an American store. The artist was
about fifty years old.

Following a fairly good wagon road eastward through
the Comobabi Mountains, I first halted at a rancheria
called " Badger's Well," where I found all the old people
absent in the sahuaro fields. The younger generation,
inclined toward the white man's ways, offered little of
interest. They spent much of their time in laughter
and animated talk at the well, where they watered their
cattle and horses. I noticed a quail creeping stealthily
to drink from the overflow of the water, a few yards
from the well. Its thirst was quickly satisfied, when it
retired to safety among the bushes.

A man sold me a spur made from the cleft of a mez-
quite bush. It has a very sharp point, which is most
efficient, though cruel. Only one foot is thus provided.
A negro came along, a rather strange appearance in this
part of the country; he told of a silver mine four miles
east of there that he and half a dozen of his race owned.
It had been found by one of them who had been a
prospector for eight years.

There were many ants in my camp, so I was glad to
pack up in the morning. A visit was first made to the
burial place, which was of the usual unattractive de-

64 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

scription, in this case almost hidden under huge piles of
palo verde branches. A tiny enclosure of upright oco-
tillo stems was pointed out to me as the modern ceme-
tery, due to the teaching of the missionary. Bundles of
clothing to be used by the deceased had been placed
among the branches of trees near both cemeteries.

CHAPTER V

COMOBABI— AN ATTRACTIVE INDIAN FAMILY— MARIANITA— A
HORNED LIZARD THAT SPURTS BLOOD THROUGH THE EYE—
AN ABORIGINAL WAY OF RECORDING EVENTS— THE PAPAGO
CALENDAR— HARVESTING SAHUARO— HOW TO KEEP COMFORT-
ABLE IN GREAT HEAT— A VISIT TO CHIEF ALVINA

Our next halting place was made at the rancheria of
Comobabi, comprising a somewhat extensive area on a
beautiful slope at the foot of the mountains. Most of
the houses here, too, were temporarily abandoned on
account of the sahuaro harvest. Early in the afternoon
we drove up to a house which impressed us as being the
most hospitable looking; the family were just seating
themselves on the ground outside, to eat tortillas and
beans, the husband standing near by with his horse
saddled. They received us as if we had always known
them, although Pablo had not met them before. We
were invited to share their food, and, as soon as they
were made to understand that I wanted to buy all sorts
of Indian things, they cheerfully produced whatever they
had. I purchased two bags full of certain eatable seeds,
which I had much desired to procure, also a meal basket
made by the thirteen-year-old daughter, who had the
sweet-sounding name of Marianita, although neither
Spanish nor English was among the family accomplish-
ments.

66 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

The lady of the house had in active use two of those
peculiar burden baskets called kibo, in which the women
carry on their backs loads of wood, gourds, or pottery,
as the case may be. It consists of an attractive looking
net-work of mescal fibre, which has been produced from
the leaves after they have been first boiled. The net is
attached to a hoop which is fastened between four long
poles of sahuaro ribs and is supported by a woven band
of strips of zotol leaves that passes over the forehead.
This contrivance is getting to be rare in the Papago coun-
try, with the introduction of mules and horses, and the
woman who owns one is with difficulty induced to sell it.
She spends considerable time in its manufacture, and in
an old-fashioned family like the present it is of very great
usefulness in every-day life. The black twine was from
her children's hair, which she cut once a year until they
were about twelve years old. I expressed an ardent de-
sire to buy one that was standing outside of the house
against the wall, and, after having thought the matter
over for a couple of hours, she decided to sell the most
used one for five dollars, though she hated to do so; for
an additional fifty cents she would mend the net-work
and put in a new plaited band for the back and the head.
The offer was promptly accepted.

Pablo and I made a tour of the houses of the ran-
cheria, some of them being three-quarters of a mile away.
In two of them we found only old deaf women at home,
the rest of the families being at the harvest of the savory
cactus fruit. On our return, toward sunset, our Indian
friend and little Marianita were busily engaged in wash-

THE REAL INDIAN 67

ing a large sleeping mat, plaited from zotol leaves in the
usual manner, which I had also bought. Another, a
smaller daughter, sat near by, while on the roof the third
child, a boy of eight summers, was romping in a short
shirt, throwing stones and looking picturesque against
the blue sky and the mountains of Baboquivari. One's
photographic propensities are sorely tried under such
tempting circumstances. As we approached, the boy
descended. Pablo, at my bidding, engaged the family
in conversation and I tried to avoid observation while
taking snapshots, for, if seen, that would have put a
speedy end to the friendship so happily begun.

This was an attractive family that carried one's
thoughts back to the Indian of long ago. The mother
seemed the incarnation of sterling qualities, well mean-
ing, intelligent, and active. She had quite an eye to
business, but she asked fair prices. She looked about
fifty, the picture of health, and had borne thirteen chil-
dren, nine of whom were alive; many of these were
full-grown and the youngest was six years old. Her
husband, who was as friendly as his wife, or even more
so, had a peculiar name, Piukvaotam, "He cannot be
eaten" (because bitter to the taste). This probably ex-
presses some characteristic of antipathy which I failed
to discover, the Indians being extremely critical in their
application of names.

It was the 10th of July; for several days the maxi-
mum temperature had remained at about ioo° F. A
moist wind, somewhat cooler, had been blowing too
gently for real comfort, but that day about sunset the

68 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

air currents changed and became dry. In the evening
the temperature felt just right, about 850 F., and the air,
at an elevation of four thousand feet, had the superb
quality of the desert.

I had selected my camp a couple of hundred yards
from the house, on a sandy, level ground among small
mezquite trees and choyas. The sandy surface was as
clean as if man had never walked over it; the Indians
on their way to and from the distant well at the foot of
the mountains all followed the same track, and there
were no waste paper and tin cans strewn about to im-
pair the full enjoyment of nature, as would have been the
case near civilized man's abodes.

The attractive camp, the nice family we had met,
the addition to my collections, the peace and quiet of
the place made me feel happy as I stretched myself on
my cot under the starlit sky, which seemed so blue and
cool and near. A soft breeze from the west fanned me
to sleep, while a mocking-bird kept on singing its most
delightful notes in the dark night. Ye dwellers in cities
know not what it is to feel your freedom!

Next morning, shortly after sunrise, I strolled over
to the house to see what my Indian friends were doing.
The mother was busy at work repairing the burden bas-
ket she had sold me. She was just finishing a new band
for the back, which is plaited in the same manner as the
sleeping mat and from the same material. Some Indi-
ans rode up offering for sale a most interesting wooden
object that resembled a broadsword, and which may be
termed a hoe, made of the heavy iron-wood and accord-

AN ANCIENT HOE 69

ingly very strong. This implement, which is called kiik,
the same word as that for plough, had, according to my
informants, been found in a mound in Santa Rosa valley.
It is extremely rare, though I later succeeded in securing,
mainly in the rancherias of Santa Rosa and Anekam,
ten specimens more which were kept in the houses of the
Indians. It is not quite appropriate to call this imple-
ment a hoe, as it was employed solely for the purpose of
weeding. Although I did not see it in active use, people
in that section of the country know it very well. Prob-
ably it is occasionally still resorted to. The showers,
which in that hot climate make plants grow very fast,
bring forth in luxuriance weeds that, unless twice re-
moved, would choke the crops. For the more recent
innovation of wheat agriculture during the winter, one
weeding is sufficient.

When in use the wooden hoe is held by both hands
in a more or less horizontal position, the left hand around
the handle, the right on the blade, while the bearer
crawls on his knees and cuts in between the weeds, loos-
ening the roots and turning them up. I found a simpler
form of the same implement, smaller in size and consist-
ing of a flat, oblong piece of wood with edge sharpened
in a similar way, which was said to have been for the use
of women.

On returning with milk which he had bought from
the friendly family, Pablo told me that Marianita, the
young girl, had gone to the well for water, a mile away,
and that I might have a chance to take a snapshot of
her when she returned. After a while she appeared at a

;o NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

distance with a big tin bucket on her head, but how much
more beautiful my small Rebecca would have looked
carrying an earthen- ware jar of native workmanship.
There are lots of pottery vessels still manufactured by
the Papagoes, but the white man's implements are rec-
ognized to be more practical. I suppose the change is
unavoidable, but the bucket was distinctly disappoint-
ing to my photographic sense. Before she approached
my vantage point, an Indian met her who evidently asked
for a drink, for he lifted the heavy bucket down, drank,
and put it on her head again. When I gave her some
candy after the short and unexpected ordeal, she looked
frightened. She stepped along quickly, showing some-
what that she felt the weight that she had been carrying
for fifteen minutes. This was six o'clock in the morn-
ing and, on rising, she had first helped her mother milk
the cows.

Half an hour afterward she again passed my camp;
this time she was bound for the sahuaro fields along the
base of the mountains. The girl of thirteen years walked
fast, carrying over one shoulder the long stick with
which the fruit is brought down. Two hours later she
returned with a small bucket full of the juicy fruit, on
which a newly arrived guest and the rest of the family
gorged themselves, while she sat near by resting. She
did not look tired, however, and I saw her later helping
her mother make wheat biscuits, baking them in an oven
adopted from the Mexicans.

It was a great pleasure to be with these natural people.
I sang to them my newly acquired Papago song, "The

REMARKABLE HABIT OF A LIZARD 71

Frog Doctor," one that is used at the sahuaro festival,
and ingratiated myself in their favor. The mother, al-
ways busy in doing something about the house, was en-
gagingly free and easy in her manner. I ventured to ask
if I might not photograph her; she looked disturbed, but
after a while consented if I would promise not to show
her picture in Tucson. She had the burden basket on
her head, appropriately enough for a woman of energy
and activity, but her whole being had suddenly changed,
and it was impossible to make her walk and look natural.
Her face was flushed, she looked embarrassed, and made
a poor picture.

In spite of presents to the children, they all stead-
fastly declined to be photographed. However, sitting
down to catalogue my lately acquired ethnological ob-
jects in the shade of a jacal, I found opportunities for
snapshots while pretending to write. When Pablo took
the horses and my dog to the well, I hugely enjoyed a
rub down from my wash basin, as well as a change of
clothing, and soon we were off again on the road.

At this rancheria I had a curious experience in the
morning with a horned lizard (phrynosoma), rather dark
in color, which my terrier pursued for eight or ten yards,
when it flattened itself out and refused to run any more.
The dog was watching for it to move and I stepped up.
When put on its back it would immediately turn over;
stooping down, I tried in vain to tease it to run again,
but it remained immobile. I was just about to rise and
leave when, to my great surprise, a spray of what appeared
to be blood was dashed on my right hand, which was

72 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

from eight to ten inches, not less than eight, distant from
the animal. I did not notice whence the fluid came, but
I observed that its left eye was bloody; in other ways it
seemed normal, and had evidently not been maltreated by
the dog, which feared its spines. On my return to civili-
zation I find that the singular habit of ejecting blood
from the eyes, peculiar to this animal, is known to the
ranchmen of the region of its habitat, both Mexican and
American, and that it also has been brought to the atten-
tion of men of science. It has been suggested that the
habit is practised only during the time of the shedding of
the skin.

The night spent at the next rancheria in the Babo-
quivari Range was disturbed by the constant, melancholy,
low howling of a dog mourning the absence of the family.
He was a very old dog, a black and white cur, with an
honest-looking face. Usually Indian dogs have little
reason for loving their masters, who show them small
consideration. After having visited a new Indian settle-
ment called San Pedro, in the Roskruge Range, where
there is excellent water in a well twenty-six feet deep, we
continued our trip for six miles northward along the
western foot-hills. There are extensive sahuaro forests
in this undulating country, which were unusually pict-
uresque in the afternoon sun. We came across one or
two camps of Indians who were gathering the much-
relished fruit.

At dusk we met two young men on horseback return-
ing from a shooting expedition, who presented us with
half a deer tenderloin and some ribs. My aim was to

• •■ V ■ 'f

Palo verde, near a Papago cemetery

Among its branches bundles of clothing for the departed

£&mm

The medicine-lodge at Santa Rosa

AN OLD MAN'S NOTES 73

reach the camp of the man who possessed the calendar
record of which the Indians had told me. It grew pitch
dark before our day's journey was over, a large blazing
fire, which enlightened us as to the position of the
camp, guiding us from some distance. Our arrival
naturally caused surprise, but was easily explained, and
the man promised to show his calendar stick the next
morning.

This calendar, which, as far as I know, is the only
one existing in the tribe, is an attempt at keeping a
record of events by various marks on a wooden stick.
Made from pine board, it is seventy-nine inches in length
and one and one-quarter inches broad at the middle,
narrowing toward the ends, and about an inch thick at
the centre, which is the thickest.

The old man, when fifteen years of age, had taken it
into his head to begin a record of the events of his life,
giving to each year a space of about an inch on the
stick, separating one year from another by a transverse
notch. He thus made one notch for each year that
passed, and their number had now reached sixty-seven.
The events of the year are depicted by crosses, dots,
lines in various positions, as zigzags, angles, parallels,
etc., and, as they have significance and meaning only to
him, are less interesting from the point of view of the
markings than from the events recorded. More than one
kind of mark is rarely applied for each year. As the
record of happenings that appeared to him important,
accompanied by his own explanations, may be of inter-
est, I shall give here the principal ones:

74 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

In 1849: Unusual snowfall, killing men and beasts.

In 1850: Successful attacks by the Apaches on the Maricopa at
Red Rock, as well as on the Papago near Magdalena,
Sonora.

In 1851: Severe disease, called "black vomit," appeared. Its symp-
toms were painful fits and cramps. Dark-colored blood
would flow from the mouth. When the sufferer vomited,
it was a sign of relief. Many Indians died, including some
medicine-men. (This may have been yellow fever.)

In 1852 and 1853: Papagoes repelled attacks by the Apaches in
Arizona.

In 1854: Papagoes fought with the Apaches at Santa Ana, Sonora.

In 1855 and 1856: Death of relatives.

In 1857: American soldiers were killed by Mexicans at Caborca.
(This alludes to the defeat of the filibusters under Captain
Crabbe.)

In 1858: Birth of a girl relative. She afterward became makai (medi-
cine-man.)

In 1859: The Papagoes in the winter went to dance with the Pimas,
below Sacaton, in order to secure wheat. (It was also the
custom for the Pima to help at the feasts of the Papago,
the reward being in either case grain or domestic animals.)

In i860: Prominent chief died.

In 1861: Papagoes in Mexico engaged the Apaches and were victori-
ous. The booty, consisting of shields, bows, and arrows,
was sold to the Mexicans for mescal brandy and maize.

In 1862: A fight with the Apaches in Mexico.

In 1863: His first marriage took place.

In 1864: His first child was born.

In 1865: Apaches captured one Papago, who later escaped.

In 1871: Apaches made peace with the whites at Arivaipa.

In 1874: Apaches attacked San Xavier.

In 1875: Ball games with foot-racing at Caborca, Sonora. He won in
betting, one horse, saddle, and bridle. ,

In 1876: Disease, accompanied by the loss of hair. Many died. (Per-
haps this was typhoid fever.)

In 1880: The railroad arrived at Tucson.

A RECORD OF EVENTS 75

In 1881: A relative became crazy, killed his wife with a knife, and
then himself.

In 1882: First fiesta in Mexican fashion took place at a rancheria
which formerly existed where at present the Indian Oasis
is. (This means that the Indians of Arizona began to
adopt the social gathering in use among the Mexicans,
without imparting any religious importance to the festival.
A fiesta among Mexicans always includes dancing, which,
in our time, has been adopted by the Papagoes of Sonora,
but generally not in Arizona. On the occasion related, the
people danced one by one in a circle.)

In 1885: A visit to a Pima feast. Many singers went, and many
others, all well dressed.

In 1887: An earthquake in the "flowers disappear" moon.

In 1889: The Pima took part in a dance in order to secure cattle.
This was in the "dry grass" moon.

In 1890: A feast at San Xavier in the "dry grass moon."

In 1891: San Xavier Indians came to dance at Kvitatk (near the
"Pump-house" near Horseshoe).

In 1893: A foot-race at Kvitatk in "inner bone" moon (winter). The
racers starting in the middle of the day, ran as far as
Santa Rosa, returning at dark (about 8 p.m.).

In 1897: Foot-races at Aktjin.

In 1898: Two nephews put in prison in Yuma for smuggling mescal
brandy.

In 1899: Two relatives imprisoned in Tucson for stealing cattle.

In 1901 : He was isolated at Tucson on account of small-pox in the
family.

In 1902: A foot-race at Tjeavolitak.

In 1903: A foot-race at Kvitatk.

In 1904: The purification of girls in the winter.

In 1907: His friends put in jail for fighting at a sahuaro feast at Kvitatk.

In 1908: Many Papagoes that were attending the fiesta of San Fran-
cisco in Magdalena, Sonora, were imprisoned for resisting
the Mexican authorities when being pressed into military
service to fight the Yaqui. A chief from San Xavier went
down to Magdalena and helped them to get out.

76 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

During recent years he has been blind, but a friend
and his wife have assisted him in placing marks accord-
ing to his directions. The event of this ensuing year
would be the visit of "Carlos" to his sahuaro camp, he
said. I append here the Papago calendar which divides
the year into thirteen "moons," or mars at in the native
language.

THE PAPAGO CALENDAR

1. Tonjapik Marsat, Hot Moon (tonj, hot).

2. Tjokiapik Marsat, Rainy Moon.

3. Shopol Usapik Marsat, Short Planting Moon.

4. Varsa Kakitak Marsat, Dry Grass Moon (kakitak, dry).

5. Vihamik Marsat, Touches Mildly Moon. (The cold touches

mildly.)

6. Jomali Suipitik Marsat, Low Cold Moon (jomali, low).

7. Uta Vaokat Marsat, Inner Bone Moon. (The middle of the

winter.) It is also called Ku Suipitik, Big Cold.

8. Ovalik Marsat, In Heat Moon. (When the animals are in heat.)

9. Kihotak Marsat (untranslatable). Meaning: When the ani-

mals have lost their fat.

10. Komaki Marsat, Gray Moon (komak, gray). (When the trees

are without leaves.)

11. Tjuutaki Marsat, Green Moon (stjuutak, light blue or light

green).

12. Oam Marsat, Yellow Moon (usually suvdni, yellow). (Yellow

flowers on trees, bushes, and plants, such as the palo verde,
the greasewood, century plants and cacti.)

13. Hikokiapik Marsat, Flowers Disappear Moon. (Plants begin

to make fruit.)

The old man was amply rewarded for his interview
and consented to be photographed, though his wife, with
the usual Papago ignorance of money value, prevented

A SAHUARO CAMP 77

me from finishing the operation by telling him to ask
eight additional dollars for his consent.

Their camp consisted simply of a roof of branches
resting on four poles, sufficient to provide some shade
during the day. Early in the morning all the female
members of the household could be seen proceeding on
their fruit-gathering expedition, each armed with a large
basket and the usual pole, about twenty feet long and
made from two pieces of sahuaro rib. At the top of the
pole, as well as lower down, there is a kind of hook
made by tying crosswise in these two places a small
piece of greasewood by the aid of which the spiny fruit
is broken off. Two or three hours later they returned,
each carrying on her head her share of a heavy har-
vest. The skin with its spines had been removed in
the field, so the inside of the huge water-tight basket
presented an appetizing mass of crimson fruit pulp, as
well as a great amount of similarly colored juice, which
would keep for a few hours only. Most of the contents
of the baskets was immediately emptied into large jars,
to be boiled for about two hours, when the mass is
strained in order to separate the numerous small black
seeds. The juice is boiled for hours longer until it be-
comes sirup (si toli), which is kept for future use in small
earthen-ware jars, each neatly sealed with a piece of
broken pottery and sticky mud. Being pleasant to the
taste and much superior to molasses, I found this sirup
excellent as part of my provisions. I also relished the
fresh juice of the fruit when brought in cool in the
morning.

78 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

I had taken my notes in a temperature of 1070 F. in
the shade of the jacal; at dawn that day the temperature
had been 740 F. and I actually awoke from feeling cold.
During the previous five days the maximum temperature
had been above ioo° F., and the heat still continued as
high for three days more. No clouds had appeared for
several evenings and the rains were delayed. It cer-
tainly felt warm as we travelled along on our return
journey to San Pedro. No shade, as that word is under-
stood in other climes, is found anywhere; the palo verde
is seldom very serviceable for this purpose, and the best
tree for shade is the mezquite, but on such days as these
the fierce rays of the sun easily penetrate its somewhat
scanty foliage, even the ground underneath the tree be-
coming heated. It was difficult to make the air circu-
late under our wagon cover, and we found ourselves in a
heat as great as that of a Turkish bath. Still it is good
policy to make the most of every favoring circumstance,
so we always stopped for lunch near some mezquite tree,
built a fire by which we made coffee, and had some
canned goods and puffed wheat with evaporated milk to
eat. The coffee especially, when made well, was very
acceptable. After that we continued our journey greatly
refreshed and actually cooler. My dog, however, did not
know what to do with himself, refusing steadfastly to
eat during the day; his favorite place was in the wagon,
under the seat, on top of a box.

On July 15 the oppressive heat was lessened toward
evening by a violent storm from the south-east, which
darkened the atmosphere first with dust, then an hour

A LARGE SUMMER RANCHERIA 79

later with welcome black clouds which poured down
considerable rain. The storm passed from Indian Oasis
over Tucson, where, as I later learned, it damaged the
roof of the new hotel. Some more rain the following
evening and night made the outlook bright for continued
travel. We were soon on the road again westward bound
for Chief Alvina's sahuaro camp. After the somewhat
vague indication as to its location being near the southern
part of the Quijotoa Range, we had been left to our own
instincts of orientation to find it.

On arriving at the so-called "Pump-house," near the
Quijotoa Range, I made a detour of thirteen miles south-
ward to the great summer rancheria Kuoitak (Big Field),
in order to make sure that the recent showers had not
already induced the chief to leave his sahuaro harvest
for agricultural pursuits. It was surprising to find such
a large cultivated area in the wilderness. It was over
two miles long, from east to west, and a half mile wide,
consisting, of course, of many small adjoining farms, all
fenced in by loosely made mezquite fences. The late
showers had certainly been effectual in bringing about
changes. Pools of water enlivened the landscape here
and there, and even some grass had begun to appear,
scarcely forty-eight hours after the rain. Birds were
singing in a lively manner, and there was spring in the
air, but evidently the Indians did not consider the rain
of sufficient quantity to justify them in beginning their
ploughing. In July or August, as soon as they are as-
sured of the soil being well soaked, they immediately
repair to their summer rancherias. So far, only one

80 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

family had arrived, so we continued our journey toward
the southern end of the Quijotoa Range.

In the evening mosquitoes and other insects gathered
around the lantern and small brown beetles crawled in-
side of my trousers or through my hair, reminding me of
tropical climates. Next morning, before starting, I had
a refreshing bath in a small water-hole, while a butcher-
bird (Janius) in a near-by bush sang with all his might,
apparently enjoying the changed conditions as much as
myself. This bird was often seen in the desert, often
far from water. Although the thermometer registered as
high as 920 F. in the warmest part of the day, still the
atmosphere, refreshed by the storms, felt remarkably
cool, and the weather was cloudy.

The southern part of the somewhat extensive Qui-
jotoa Range, separated from the rest, is called by the
Papago, Kihotoak (kiho, burden basket; toak, moun-
tain), said to be derived from its shape. The Spanish
name of the whole range is a corruption of this native
name. I was glad to find Chief Alvina in his camp,
which was in close proximity to great forests of sahuaro
on the slopes along the eastern base of the mountains.
He brought me as a welcome some pitahaya fruit which
tasted remarkably well. All the rest of the fruit gatherers
had already left, for the sahuaro season was over, though
there were still to be found pitahayas, the other savory
cactus fruit of the region. There was no pasture; our
horses fed on rolled oats, besides relishing the leaves of
the palo fierro (iron-wood) tree.

The chief was perfectly willing to be interviewed for

DRENCHED IN THE DESERT 81

hours. He thought the number of the Papagoes was
decreasing. Few old men were seen any more. The
food which is gradually supplanting their native dishes
is injurious to the health of the Papago. Children were
no longer obedient. The young men nowadays are
seized with restlessness and want to leave for other parts
of the country; nobody takes care of them, and they die
early, he complained. We took a walk together, and he
pointed out to me the ripe nuts of the jojoba, a bush of
common occurrence in that country. They are eaten by
the Indians and have rather a pleasant flavor. As they
contain a great deal of oil, they might compete with pea-
nuts in the oil industry of the world, were it not for the
slow growth of the bush. Mr. M. G. Levy, mine-owner
and store-keeper in Ajo, thinks that they will prove of
importance as cattle food and that they should be culti-
vated. Among the frontier population the oil has great
reputation as a hair restorer.

On two afternoons we had quite heavy showers, and
I felt some regret at having disposed of my large, though
inconvenient tent at Indian Oasis, taking with me only
the fly. Pablo and I were drenched and so were our
blankets. It would have been difficult to make a fire
but for the presence of the small resinous bush called
tovoso, which burned lustily in spite of being dripping
wet. We tore the bushes up entire and kept up a bon-
fire by which we dried ourselves and cooked our food. I
began to wonder whether this could truthfully be called
a desert.

CHAPTER VI

HORSESHOE IN THE QUIJOTOA RANGE— INDIANS AS MINERS
—SPENDING A NIGHT UNDER DIFFICULTIES— DELIGHTFUL
NATIVES— A WOMAN'S GAME— SANTA ROSA RANCHERIA— THE
GREAT HARVEST FEAST OF SANTA ROSA

After an affectionate leave-taking from good Chief
Alvina, we departed northward for Horseshoe, eating, as
we travelled along, delicious pitahayas with which we
had provided ourselves. Eight miles before arriving at
our destination we passed on the llano the pump-house
that had once been placed over a deep well, which, ac-
cording to trustworthy information, is five hundred and
twenty feet deep. It has an abundance of water from an
undercurrent and was once the pulse of a short-lived,
though intense, mining activity. If the information that
reached me is correct, the discovery of a bonanza silver
mine of very rich ore started a boom here nearly twenty
years ago. Several thousand people gathered, the usual
fabulous prices were paid for corner lots, and telegraph
and telephone lines were established with Tucson. To-
day the silence of death reigns here; the roads have been
obliterated, the houses have disappeared, as also have
the telegraph poles, and there is no sign of any former
activity. I should have felt inclined to consider the whole
thing a fable but for the unattractive remains of the

pump-house, which the Indians have annexed, building a

PAPAGO PLACER MINING 83

few houses near it and naming their rancheria from the
tall chimney. Five miles north is a rancheria called
Sikulhimat ("where the water goes around. " Slkul,
round). Here, according to the Indians, the drainage
of rain water flows toward the Gila River; south of that
place it flows toward Mexico.

Horseshoe is the name of a once noted placer mine,
the surface of which has been worked out. There are
gold mines of a similar nature around the southern end
of the Quijotoa Range. Judge Day has a store at Horse-
shoe and buys gold from the Indians, who still, during
the winter, keep up the "dry-washing'' process here,
using for the purpose the machines that are common to
the neighboring district of Altar, in Sonora. The Indians
are even able to make the machines themselves. Judge
Day is a man of intelligence and much common-sense,
and, having lived here since 1893, was able to give re-
liable information about matters pertaining to the region.
According to him the padres from San Xavier Mission,
two hundred years ago, found the placer mines of Qui-
jotoa. He showed me some nice nuggets of small sizes
which he had lately bought. Five years ago the Ind-
ians found free gold in a piece of quartz which was
worth one thousand six hundred dollars. After that
eighty Papago and a few Yaqui Indians worked here for
half a year, taking out in value between ten thousand
and twelve thousand dollars, Judge Day buying most
of the gold. The . relations between the miners — all
Indians — were cordial. When any of them had found
a rich spot, he would tell it to the others, and next morn-

84 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

ing the crowd would begin to work as near him as pos-
sible. No ill feeling or rights ensued; they would each
earn from four to five dollars a day. The miners when
coming home would always wash after changing their
clothes. Considering the trouble of getting water at the
only well, their cleanliness may be considered an example
even to whites. The women are particularly cleanly,
and wash their own clothes frequently as well as those
of their husbands.

Judge Day and his family, who have been living
here among the Indians for so long a time, gave very
good reports of their neighbors. He had spent twenty-
two years among Indians, and considered the Papago the
safest. "As a rule, they are honest," he said, "though
there are scalawags among them, but these are discred-
ited by their own race. The women will steal trifles,
picking up a rope or the like, but the men will sel-
dom do that. The store often gives an Indian twenty
dollars on credit, and he will apologize if he does not
pay in ninety days. These Indians, like the Mexicans,
are pleased to be in debt, because they consider it an
honor to be trusted. If the average native says he will
pay his debt, he will do so."

Like all Indians, the Papagoes are kind to their
children, the father no less than the mother. An Ind-
ian couple were purchasing some articles in the store
while I was present; their strong and fat infant was
crying continuously in its mother's arms, she trying
vainly to stop its wails. Finally, I saw her, with a few
words, hand the babe to her husband, a boyish, good-

THE BENEFIT OF EXERCISE 85

looking man and apparently younger than herself. He
took the howling nuisance gently and walked resolutely
off into the hot sun. I wondered what was going to
happen. He went straight to the well, gave the fretful
youngster a bath, and returned in a few minutes with his
purpose accomplished.

It may be of interest to note the manner in which the
daughter of the American family at Horseshoe, who
when twelve or thirteen years old was in poor health,
grew to be strong and well. Being brought up with the
Indians, whose language she speaks, she taught herself
the accomplishment of every Indian girl, to carry a water-
jar on her head. This made her healthy, and now she
weighs one hundred and fifty pounds.

To the north of here, only about six miles, travel-
ling by the track, is an important rancheria, Tjiuvak
("Where Something Decayed"), lying among low hills
in the Quijotoa Range, where a road passes from east
to west. I was desirous of seeing the best-known
basket-maker who lives here, but she, like the rest, had
just left for the summer ranch. The place looked much
like a village, but was temporarily abandoned on account
of the season, so we continued our journey northward
by an excellent road that had been furnished mainly
by nature. It was a slightly downhill drive, the coun-
try now almost imperceptibly sloping toward the Gila
River.

We arrived late at a summer rancheria with the some-
what disconcerting native name, "Dead Old Man's
Well." Here we expected to find the people of the win-

86 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

ter habitations we had just left behind. The night was
pitch-dark with overhanging nimbus clouds, and thunder,
more or less distant, was heard all around us. The air
felt sultry and quite a strong wind had begun to blow,
as if warning us of an advancing storm. Big fires were
burning outside of the houses, which looked hospitable
enough. But this was a night which one would not
exactly like to pass out-of-doors, so I asked Pablo to
hurry in and see if he could not secure a house in which
we might have sleeping quarters. As good luck would
have it, a friend of ours whose acquaintance we had made
at the feast of Noria was here. He had come from the
Comobabi Mountains to cultivate the fields with the rest,
and he helped us to obtain lodgings for the night. A
small storehouse was placed at our disposal, and as we
drove up in the wagon some girls were busily carrying
things out in order to give us more space inside.

It was a tiny shed, built of upright mezquite poles
calked and plastered inside and outside with mud. The
roof, which was made of sahuaro ribs and greasewood
branches, with a cover of earth on top, was water-proof,
all care having been taken to make it secure against the
rain, for here the provisions of the family, their house-
hold goods, clothes, and other earthly possessions were
stored. Air had access only through the door-opening,
which was exactly one and a half feet wide. Owing to
an all-day's summer sun the storehouse was extremely
hot, and as I entered my lodging the temperature was
so oppressive that it was almost stifling; still, as the wind
was blowing with increased force and lightning at more

A NIGHT IN A STOREHOUSE 87

frequent intervals lit up the darkness outside, the little
house offered protection for the night, and gave a feeling
of comfort such as our savage ancestors must have felt
when resorting to a cave just in time to escape a drench-
ing. Big jars, gourds, sacks containing maize, wheat,
sahuaro seeds, and other edible wild seeds were lying
about in the corners. There was not much space left,
but by adjusting things our baggage was safely stored
and we had our frugal supper while the rain poured down.

Pablo went to arrange for his bedding with the Ind-
ians, while I managed to place my cot backward from
the door-opening, filling up all the space left. Near my
head, in a box in a corner, a hen with small chickens
was sitting. She had a curious way of poking her beak
against the box two or three times a minute, almost with
the regularity of clock-work. It was as if the habit of
using her beak to help feed her large family had grown
on her to such an extent that she continued doing it
automatically through the night. To listen to this be-
came a nuisance, but I was too tired to allow it to inter-
fere with my sleep. After a while I awoke from the
intolerable heat, bathed in perspiration. I undid my
bed to push it through the narrow opening, and leaving
the hen to continue her pecking, put my cot outside
where the rain had ceased. The air felt cool and fresh
now, and at dawn even a feeling of chilliness interrupted
my slumber, but I continued to sleep until after sunrise
in spite of the cackling of fowls, the barking of dogs,
and the Indians moving and talking all around me.

It was Sunday morning, July 25, and I awoke well

88 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

rested, though at an inconceivably late hour for that
country, for the sun had been nearly half an hour above
the horizon. The men had gone to plough the fields, but
lots of women and girls and a few young men had gathered
waiting for me to get up. They had brought many ob-
jects, which they understood I wanted to buy. As soon
as I opened my eyes two kinds of the medicine-man's
rasping outfits, women's games, a splendid bull-roarer
(see page 95), and other tempting things were presented
for my approval.

The attitude of the natives was an unlooked-for de-
light. With the exception of the men who were unavoid-
ably absent, the remainder of the four or five families
that made up the rancheria seated themselves around
me, showing much interest in my presence and eager to
sell what they had brought. I distributed candy to
every one, and much enthusiasm was evinced, the utmost
good-will prevailing. Two elderly sisters, talkative and
impulsive, were very intelligent in giving explanations of
the articles offered for sale. One of them sat down on
the ground and showed me how the medicine-man's rasp-
ing-sticks were used, at the same time rendering the ap-
propriate song. The other one, seizing a pair of wooden
tweezers, which are used in pulling off certain edible
cactus fruit, proceeded in a most graphic manner to de-
monstrate how the spines are rubbed off by the same
implement, whereupon the fruit is placed in a basket and
taken home to be cooked. Her quiet pantomime, full of
humor, made matters clear beyond doubt unto the small-
est detail, without her uttering a single word. She would

DOUBLE BALL GAME WITH STICK 89

have done credit to any stage. It was a busy morn-
ing, and when the crowd saw us getting ready to eat our
belated breakfast, they considerately said, "Let us retire
that they may eat." Pablo and I seated ourselves near
the fire, and it was a small matter that the rice had been
burned during the activities of the morning.

After a while, we had them all back again. The
implements used in a woman's game were offered for
sale. They comprised a small object, consisting of two
short, thick sticks from the cat-claw tree, linked together
in the middle by a twisted leather string. This 6la, as
they call it, has to be thrown with a thin pole, slightly
curved at the point, and the movement must be made by
applying the point between the two connecting sticks
and then casting it upward. The game consists in
throwing the object so as to reach a certain goal, the
opposing party trying to prevent it. At my request, the
woman with the imitative gift induced four young girls
to show me how the game was played, and they immedi-
ately prepared for the fray. The colored bandannas were
disengaged from around the head and tied around the
hips. The uncovering disclosed beautiful black hair,
well-groomed a la mexicaine, parted in the middle, and
hanging in two generous braids down the back. The
next minute they all spat in their hands and smoothed
their hair, then the game started. The girls played
two against two. The 61a was first thrown up in the
air, the players standing ready opposite each other. The
tactics of the opponents was to run with their backs
turned against the others and strike the disputed ob-

90 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

ject with their poles. Each game was played with much
agility and lasted only a few minutes, the participants
keenly enjoying the sport. Formerly as many as twenty-
women on each side took part in this game.

I ventured to take snapshots and, strange to relate, it
was not resented. A boy showed me how to swing a
bull-roarer, and we all had a good time. Though the
wearing apparel of these people and most of their uten-
sils came from the white man's store, still, neither Eng-
lish nor Spanish was spoken, only Papago. They be-
haved something like natives who have not been much
in contact with whites, and these "poor heathen" were
the nicest Papagoes I met on my whole expedition. The
entertaining crowd would sometimes retire as one man,
then after a while they would return again; they were
curious without being troublesome. One of the humor-
ous sisters told me that in the rancheria of Santa Rosa,
which was my next goal, there was much to be seen
that would interest me, if I made friends with the prin-
cipal men. She also had a house there, she said, which
was at our disposal, and she gave us directions as to
how to find it, for Santa Rosa was a big place.

It is, in fact, the largest summer rancheria in the
Papago tribe, and people from several clusters of win-
ter habitations gather here to the number of about five
hundred. The houses are scattered over an area of
nearly two miles square. Its native name is Kuatshi
(Big Peak). I entered this old-fashioned rancheria with
much expectancy of gaining further knowledge of the
beliefs and customs of these people. Water from the

ARRIVAL AT SANTA ROSA 91

recently fallen rain was standing in pools here and there
in the rough road. Inside of the rude mezquite fences
a surprisingly large amount of weeds was flourishing,
and beautifully green. In the midst of this mass of verd-
ure the Indians were busy ploughing and sowing, the
weeding being done later. Here and there a rain-storm
might be seen at a distance, in the north, east, and south,
but the atmosphere as a whole was clear, and everything
looked beautiful in the late afternoon sun.

After some parleying and searching and travelling,
we found our Juan, a tall, strong-looking Indian with
a benign expression of countenance. Near this man's
house was to be our promised lodgement. He pointed
out to us a large, dome-shaped straw house, of old style,
about a hundred yards away. Crawling in through the
door-opening, which was not quite two feet high, I found
the inside very spacious. Provisions were stored here,
and a large granary basket gave me joy at the prospect
of its possible acquisition. The room was clean and
cool. Nevertheless, being unusually dependent upon fresh
air, I feared this would be a very inconvenient abode for
me, so I crawled out again and addressed myself to an
old man who was occupied outside in digging up and
destroying the passages of some pernicious red ants.
On our arrival I had noticed him clearing away rubbish
in front of an attractive little house near by made of
upright poles so that the air had access everywhere. I
proposed that he should rent me the little dwelling.

He readily consented, asking me to state a price, and
I suggested fifty cents a day, which was promptly ac-

92 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

cepted. He immediately commenced to move his things
out so as to give space enough for my cot. The tiny
house had a good roof of greasewood branches covered
with earth. A few yards in front of the door-opening,
toward the west, was the usual arrangement of a jacal
that provided a grateful shade. The Indians had ar-
rived here only the day before, and the old man had
decorated the door-posts with fresh greasewood branches,
which gave the modest habitation a festive and cheerful
appearance. I felt comfortable in my new quarters, and
prepared to stay here for several weeks.

Among the friends I gradually made was one whose
civilized name was Simon, who became of great service
in helping me to get specimens and information from the
Indians. He made a good beginning himself by selling
me his clown's outfit, more or less complete, an unex-
pected discovery in these days when advancing civiliza-
tion is destroying all the sacred emblems, customs, and
beliefs of the natives. These were implements used at
the great harvest feast, vikita, which is given every four
years at Santa Rosa. The name is derived from the
word viiki, by which is designated the finest and small-
est plumes of the vulture. Manifold preparations are
made for the event, which comes off in the "inner bone"
moon, about November or December, after the harvest-
ing of corn, beans, pumpkins, and melons. The par-
ticipants dress up and practise their parts in a large,
open, square enclosure of brushwood fences, where
afterward many ceremonial objects which were carried
about during the festivities are left. I was told that

Front Back

The clown at the great feast of Santa Rosa

My camp at Santa Rosa

THE CLOWN 93

sahuaro wine is not used during or after this great fes-
tival. At Quitovac, in Sonora, an annual harvest feast,
called by the same name, is given in August; this is
accompanied by the drinking of sahuaro wine.

As the name indicates, the clowns are the funny men
of the occasion, and their apparel and weapons are in ac-
cordance with their functions. Their bows are crooked
mezquite roots with strings attached. Their ridiculous-
looking arrows, four for each, are made from sahuaro
ribs, with turkey feathers as the plumed part; like the
hunter, the clown has two kinds, but his are out of pro-
portion, three being thin and one very stout. His brace-
let may be a piece of unborn deerskin wrapped around
the wrist. The most striking part of the costume is
the mask, which is made of canvas, like a hood that is
drawn over the head; formerly perhaps basket work took
the place, at least in parts, of the canvas. Small holes
for the eyes have been pierced in it and the top is adorned
with a large bunch of plumes from the turkey, hawk,
and a black sea-bird. "Horns" made of turkey plumes
are attached to the sides, soft down from a hawk being
tied to the top. The decorations on the facial part of
the mask symbolize clouds. Under the clown's belt is
tucked a wooden machete, and large strings of sea-shells
run over the shoulders across the chest and back. He
wears a huge tobacco-pouch and carries a sahuaro pole
on which small greasewood sticks, tied at right angles,
do duty as hooks.

His bare arms, as well as his arrows, are decorated
each with a spiral line made with chalk and encircling

94 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

lengthwise, while his legs are daubed in spots, the color
being afterward allowed to wear off. At the feast, the
numerous clowns perform pranks everywhere; they visit
the houses, offer food, and shoot at men disguised as
deer. During the dancing they keep in the middle of
the dancing place. They neither sing nor talk, though
they may do so if requested. If a clown breathes on a
sick man, the latter gets well. The mask when not used
is kept in the house of the owner, usually in a covered
earthen-ware jar. The dignity of the office, which does
not imply the necessity of being a medicine-man, is con-
fined to certain families, the father deciding which of
his sons is to be the next clown.

On the wall in my lodging-room there was hanging
a different kind of mask, neatly made from a gourd, and
painted. It is worn by a singer at the same great feast.
I also secured this, and during the time spent at Santa
Rosa valley I was fortunate enough to make quite a col-
lection of such interesting objects. There are three sec-
tions of colors on the singers' masks symbolizing clouds
of similar hues. The upper part is painted with red
ochre; then comes a black band which is produced by
a mixture of sap from the mezquite and oxide of iron;
the white band is made with chalk. The zigzags of the
red section symbolize clouds, the dots are grains of corn.
The designs on the white section denote clouds and light-
ning. The singers (viinim) have the same kind of rat-
tles as the clowns, consisting of a number of the small
bags spun by an insect (attacus orizaba), with a pebble
inside of each, and attached to a band around the ankle.

THE SINGER 95

The band should be cut from the skin of a black
dog, which is killed for the purpose in the practising
enclosure.

The singer has the upper body nude, his trousers
being turned up as high as possible and his feet bare.
He wears no head-dress, but attempts to appear neatly
attired, tying around the loins a colored bandanna or
perhaps a shawl borrowed from his wife. Around the
waist, the neck, and the upper part of the arm bright-
colored strips of cloth are tied. His body is smeared
with red ochre on which are spots of white, symbolizing
grains of corn.

An important part of the singer's outfit is the bull-
roarer, consisting of two flat pieces made of sahuaro
rib, the smaller one being held by the hand when in
use. The connecting string should be twine of native
cotton, which still may be found in use. They are
decorated with symbolic designs, such as those stand-
ing for lightning, clouds, turtles, grains of corn, express-
ing their desire for rain. The buzzing sound produced
should be deep, in imitation of the thunder, which
brings rain; if the sound is shrill, lightning only will
follow.

The bull-roarer is swung for the purpose of calling
people together and as a sign that the meeting is over,
both at the preliminary exercises in the practising en-
closure as well as at the feast itself. These buzzing im-
plements not only open and conclude the proceedings,
but they are used on the way from the practising house
to the feast early in the morning, also when the cloud

96 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

symbols are carried about, and on similar occasions.

When not in use, the implement is tucked under the belt

at the back. After the festival it is put away not to be

used until the next feast takes place.

The singers are made up of the following four groups:
i. The people of Santa Rosa rancheria. Sikulhimat,

Aloitak, and Kvitatk join with them.

2. The people of Kvivo rancheria. The San Xavier
inhabitants join with these.

3. The people of Anekam rancheria.

4. The people of Aktjin rancheria.

These four groups have different masks and at the
head-quarters of each is a practising enclosure.

This great harvest festival lasts from morning till sun-
set. Ten days before the principal men begin the prep-
arations, fasting at the same time and drinking water
but once a day. Sometimes as many as fifty rancherias
take part. Much noise is made in the evening before
the feast is begun. Each group of rancherias sings dif-
ferent songs, in its turn, and every fourth year new songs
are produced. At the Quitovac meeting the same songs
are used year after year. The singers also dance with
ceremonial objects in their hands, their songs being suited
to the emblem carried.

Mr. Brownell, store-keeper and mine-owner at Brown-
ell, in the Quijotoa Range, was present at the last festival
given, which was in December, 1908. Though unable
to give me any descriptive detail, he assured me that it
was an unusual performance in its magnitude and bar-
barous display of costume, paint, and ceremonials. A

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THE PRACTISING ENCLOSURE 97

few other Americans had been present, but nobody was
allowed to make any notes. Permission to take photo-
graphs would not be considered without a payment of
six hundred dollars. It is doubtful whether a similar
festival will ever take place again, for there are only
one, or possibly two, old men left who know how to
direct the complicated ceremonies. Formerly, the com-
plaint was made to me, the young men used to be taught
by the two old men, but at present nobody goes to them.
If another festival does take place, it would be highly
desirable for an ethnologist to be present. I visited the
practising enclosure, which is from forty to fifty feet
square. A great accumulation of ceremonial things was
left here from preceding feasts, conspicuous among which
were some large, triangular frames to which wads of
cotton were attached, symbolizing clouds. Bright blue,
wooden swallows, fastened to the tops of sticks, also at-
tracted my attention. They are carried by certain per-
formers. The enclosure is called a vaaki, as is also the
medicine lodge and the house of the leader of the salt
expeditions.

I was successful enough to procure two more clown
masks, the owners of both being medicine-men. One of
them, who was too old to be a clown any longer, should
have handed it over to his son or nephew, but he pre-
ferred American dollars. I was further completing my
collection with sets of the various articles that comprise
the outfit, when my nefarious activities reached the ears
of the principal men, who at once put a stop to any more
purchases. "What are we coming to," cried the chief,

98 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

"selling these things? Are we not going to have any
more feasts ? " There was some talk of having me re-
turn what I had bought, but the storm of indignation
gradually subsided.

CHAPTER VII

VISIT TO A VERY SACRED PLACE— THE CHILDREN'S SACRIFICE
—A MEETING WITH AN IMPORTANT PERSONAGE— ANEKAM—
PRIMITIVE NATIVES— I ARRIVE AMONG THE KOHATK PEOPLE
—A WET NIGHT— RETURN TO SANTA ROSA

All the while I had not forgotten what my talkative
woman friend at the last stopping place had told me.
"Get an old man to show you the children's cemetery,"
she said, "and you will see many things." As soon as I
considered my acquaintance with Simon to be sufficiently
well established, I asked him if he would not take me to
the place where the children had been buried. "It
would be well to get the chief's permission for that,"
he answered after some hesitation. Accordingly Pablo
and I mounted our horses and, accompanied by Simon,
also on horseback, started off with the prospect of an
interesting afternoon's experience before us. The place
was not far away, perhaps three miles off, but it was al-
ready five o'clock and, as we first had to secure the per-
mission, we hurried along.

Simon is very quick in his movements and, there
being no time to waste, we confidently followed in his
wake. We arrived at the camp of one of the principal
men, a leader of the annual salt expedition to the gulf,
with whom on the previous day I had had a long inter-
view. He was one of those old-fashioned, simple-minded,

ioo NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

though intelligent, barbarians who give the serious in-
quirer clear, absolutely straightforward information, and
I had no objection to hearing from his mouth some more
about the ancient traditions of the Papago. He told us
of a spring that once had threatened to flood not only
the great valley of the Santa Rosa, but the whole Papago
country. Four children, two boys and two girls, had
to be put into the fountain in order to stop the water
from flooding. The sacrifice had availed and ever after-
ward this had been a most sacred locality, of which the
Papagoes took great care. He asked us what we wanted
to do there. Being assured of our harmless intentions,
and Simon being a great friend of his, he had no objec-
tions to our proposed visit, and I paid him two dollars
for the permission.

Our next call would be, I expected, on the chief.
Simon, on his quick-gaited steed, rode ahead of us, and
soon disappeared from view in the winding arroyo, which
we entered. This arroyo led among the scattered ranches
of Santa Rosa up to the base of the mountain range, where
lay the object of our trip. On an easy grade we travelled
quickly over the sand and gravel that the rains of pre-
vious years had washed down from the mountains so
as to fill the arroyo bed. On both sides grew thickets of
desert willows, arrowbushes, and a peculiar light green
bush with long, needle-like leaves, from which the
Indians make prayer-sticks. We followed this beautiful
arroyo for a couple of miles, and I was congratulating
myself on getting away unobserved by the multitude.
Pablo and I spurred our horses along and we gradually

A SERIOUS ALTERCATION 101

gained on our swift guide, who suddenly left our safe
arroyo, now narrowing as we approached the base of the
mountains. We passed a couple of hundred yards above
the last houses of the rancheria and were making fast for
our goal, when a man on a brown horse appeared, com-
ing toward us at a furious gait, followed by a white colt.
Just as we reached the main road he caught up with us.
Although he preserved a calm demeanor, his eyes, when
he halted us, betrayed excitement. It was the old fa-
miliar case of Indians knowing in a mysterious way well-
nigh everything that is going on, as if they had telephones
and telegraphs.

"Where are you bound?" he asked. Simon looked
scared when answering the question.

"That place," the new-comer retorted, "belongs to
many people, and one man alone cannot give the per-
mission to visit it. I am the chief of this rancheria.
Why did you not come to me ? "

Simon evidently had committed a serious breach of
etiquette by letting the matter rest with his friend, the
director of the salt expeditions. He tried to explain his
action as being due to the absence of the chief in the
fields. For a man with so much initiative and such un-
usual frankness, it seemed amazing that he should have
made such a blunder. Judging from the way he re-
peated over and over again his one line of defence, his
case was a weak one. The chief evidently was right, and
finally, turning his horse toward the rancheria and start-
ing back, he said he did not want us to go to that place.

This was more than I could endure, so I, with Pablo,

102 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

rode after him, and began negotiations in my own way.
He soon became more tractable. "The place is sacred,"
he said, "and not everybody who comes along can see
it." The Indians had gone to much trouble to keep up
its proper appointments. He was going to bring this
matter before the Big House, the lodge, that very even-
ing, and the people would decide in the case. The pros-
pect of vague and possibly endless delay was not exactly
to my taste, so I proposed another way out of the diffi-
culty, that of paying to him and to the other big man of
the tribe, the Keeper of the Smoke, the same sum that
I had already paid the first principal man.

Gratified at seeing the negotiations happily concluded,
I presented him with tobacco and candy, which he smil-
ingly put into his trousers pockets. He said we could go
to the cemetery that afternoon and next morning return
to look it over more carefully. To my suggestion that it
was too late in the day to continue the trip, he answered
that the place was close by. He admonished us only to
be careful not to disturb anything, and thus we separated
all in a pleasant mood. The cemetery was nearer than
I had expected; after having followed the road for ten
minutes, Simon told us that we had arrived. The coun-
try was now level and covered with greasewood bushes
all around. We found ourselves at the beginning of a
broad pass, through which the road from Santa Rosa
leads westward to a mountain.

We tied our horses and walked aside from the road
some twenty yards, when my eyes caught sight of a cir-
cular enclosure made from upright split ocotillo (fou-

AN INTERESTING SHRINE 103

quieria splendens) poles, from which the bark had been
recently stripped. To the north and to the south was
piled up at either side in a semicircle a very large heap
of discarded poles, in orderly array, several thousands of
them. I had expected to find a shrine of a more or less
common type, so this was an agreeable surprise and
worth some trouble.

I stepped up to the sanctuary, which was about the
height of a man and nineteen feet in diameter, with open
gateways toward the four corners of the world. The
row of ocotillo poles was placed two or three thick. In-
side, in the middle, was a mound neatly made of slabs,
six feet in diameter and two feet high; on top of it rested
a large sea shell, seven inches long, of a light rose color,
with its opening toward the east. Two thin upright
sticks of ocotillo had been placed at each cardinal point
of the mound. The shrine stands on ground that is a
few feet higher than the surrounding plain. This slight
elevation, which provides ample space for the enclosure,
is evidently natural, though its central part is slightly
concave. This may have been due to the action of a
spring. It looks as if the earth in some way had been
removed, forming a slight basin. From this depression,
toward the east and the west, are outlets as if water had
been running. The western outlet is quite short, but
the eastern is over one hundred feet long, and widens out
so as to present broad, level ground. Here it is where
the water finally stopped, the Indian explained, and here
may be observed eight good-sized single stones or heaps
of stones. Near each are placed two upright ocotillo

104 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

sticks, one toward the east and one toward the west.
The four eastern stones or stone heaps have only one
each, placed toward the east.

Everything about the place was scrupulously clean and
orderly; not a trace of anything to be seen on the sandy
ground anywhere. The mound of slabs that kept the
water down in the bowels of the earth, and prevented the
country from being flooded, was well arranged. Though
mainly a prayer for rain to the sea, in a way this was a
monument to the four children who had been sacrificed,
and though devoted to a mythical event, its extreme sim-
plicity, relieved against a background of the simple mind
of the natives, was impressive, as the sun, at the end of
July, in close proximity to the western hills, poured its
strong, beautiful light over the scene.

Fearing a refusal, I did not ask Simon's permission to
photograph, but, putting up my tripod, calmly brought
my camera into action. Hardly had I begun operations
when Pablo shouted: "People are coming! I see dust
rising in the west." Although photography had not been
included among the sacrilegious acts mentioned by the
chief, still it required little sagacity to be convinced that,
with the Papago abhorrence of the noble art, to be
caught photographing such a place would amount to a
crime. I had made a few exposures and now hurriedly
put my camera and tripod together. Simon evidently
felt very uneasy and, with his feet, began to cover with
sand the marks that the tripod had left, making similar
holes here and there with the sharp end of a pole, at the
same time throwing sticks of wood about, to mislead his

Shrixe of the children's sacrifice, seen from the west

The large heaps are discarded ocotillo sticks

Shrixe of the children's sacrifice, near Santa Rosa

East of the shrine of the childrex's sacrifice

Here the outflow of water is supposed to have stopped

THE CHILDREN'S CEMETERY 105

canny countrymen. Then we started back at a quick
pace to our camp.

The name of this sacred place is Aalhihiani (ali,
child; bibian, cemetery). The enclosure's name is ki,
house. It is renewed at irregular intervals and, accord-
ing to my informant, sometimes every year. The pres-
ent one had been made during the preceding winter.
Those who make the enclosure have to come on foot to do
the work. After the work is done there is a feast in the
lodge, the whole night being spent in singing to the ac-
companiment of rasping sticks. The four children come
down from the cemetery and take part, but only the med-
icine-men see them. In the morning the latter tell the
people what they saw and what the children told them
about rain and crops.

The faces of the children when about to be sacrificed
were painted yellow with transverse black stripes, while
the body was painted on the front, yellow, and on the
back, black. A hole was dug in which the children were
made to stand up, while the medicine-men sang. The
flow of water which was stopped came from the sea,
threatening to flood the whole world. The Papagoes
worship the sea. In the subdivision of the tribe called
Hohola, tradition has it that a man once went down into
a cavity in the ground and the sea kept him there for
four years. His relatives, considering him dead, burned
his house and ate his cattle. He turned up one day, asked
them to make a house for him away from the rancheria,
and, after having taken eight baths, one every four days,
he began to live again as before.

106 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

Next morning I had an appointment with the Keeper
of the Smoke. Some days before he had promised to
make for me a shield of the same kind as the Papagoes
until quite recently were in the habit of making when
going on the war-path against the Apaches. As this is
a solemn act, which entails much fasting and praying on
the part of the maker, and also as it would mean, accord-
ing to Indian notions, certain risks and observances on
my part, we had agreed on a meeting at which I should be
enlightened as to my duties and dangers in the matter.

Accompanied by Pablo I arrived at the medicine
lodge at the appointed hour, which was "a little after
the sun is over the horizon. " We found the keeper sit-
ting under the jacal in front of the lodge and facing the
east. He was a stern, almost fanatical-looking Indian
who conscientiously observes all the rules and regulations
his religion imposes on him. There was no English or
Spanish about this man. "I do not do things from hear-
say," he began. "Every evening I make a fire east of
the jacal (in the winter it would be inside the lodge) and
tell the people what I know to be the truth. In this
house I tell the people what to do, and this is the place
where any undertaking should begin."

He spoke for nearly an hour. The shield he would
make alone, and the proper precautions would be taken,
but he wanted to be assured that I would not trifle with it,
and that I should help in its making by fasting. " People
have sold you clown's masks and singer's masks," he
continued; "that is very wrong, and should never have
been done. The merit of the feast passes away with

OTHER SACRED LOCALITIES 107

those things. They ought to be returned, but I am not
going to ask you to do that, because the things have been
paid for, so it would not be right to have the bargains
changed. But I want to tell you one thing which you
probably do not know. Those objects are apt to make
you ill, and when that happens, do not blame the Ind-
ians!"

When the time came for me to answer, I reassured
him on the several points that caused him anxiety. The
things I had acquired were going to be well cared for.
I expressed my pleasure at the elucidation his talk had
given me, and told him that I should like much to have
another meeting with him by and by. He believed in
me, he answered, and would meet me here again later
on, but at present he was too busy making ready for the
sahuaro feast which was soon to come off. He was glad
to see me among his people, he added.

Next day, availing myself of the permission already
obtained, we again visited the "cemetery" as well as
other sacred spots in the neighborhood. I was shown
the place where the elder men, sitting in a circle, make
the small, bright blue prayer-sticks for the great harvest
festival. One end is pointed, and to the other is tied a
turkey feather; about two hundred and fifty of these are
distributed at the feast in the interest of health, and
some are buried later, to keep the fields moist.

The shrine of the buried jar is situated at the cross-
ing of two tracks, one leading to the "children's ceme-
tery," which is west of it. It is customary for those who
visit the latter place also to call here and deposit some

io8 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

offering. The jar is buried in the ground and a small
mound made above it, the central part of which is cov-
ered by a flat stone. Ocotillo sticks, stripped of bark,
are placed upright, two toward the east and two toward
the west, and empty cartridges, bits of glass, small sea-
shells, as well as pebbles, had been deposited here. The
little shrine is just outside of the rancheria, toward the
end of the slope that runs down gently from the moun-
tains near by. The rain-water, in times gone by, had
formed furrows and small arroyos everywhere, making
the country look wavy. The earth around the roots of
the ever-present greasewood bushes resists the short-
lived torrents, and they presented the same appearance
of growing high above the ground on top of mounds
which usually is due to the action of the wind. At one
place where the ground was level a vast number of light
yellow flowers were growing, forming a carpet-like cov-
ering among the greasewood. Quantities of broken pot-
tery were lying about to the north-east of the small shrine
and here, according to tradition, was the former site of
the rancheria.

In spite of my satisfactory meeting with the Keeper
of the Smoke, he seemed to have efficiently blocked my
purchase of any more important objects, so I decided to
make a tour of the several rancherias to the north, where
the sway of my uncompromising and despotic friend
did not reach; perhaps on my return conditions might
change. The next rancheria to the north is Anekam,
hardly three miles away, but it is a community distinct
from the preceding one and even more primitive. In

UNSOPHISTICATED INDIANS 109

ordinary weather the inhabitants of one place can hear
the singing of those at the other on festive occasions.
The days were warm now, hardly any day registering
less than ioo° F. in the shade, often more. But climatic
conditions matter less than the attitude of the people
one meets, and here there was an unexpected charm
of simplicity and unobtrusive inquisitiveness which re-
minded me of former happy occasions in my life among
natives. A sahuaro feast had been concluded the day
before. People from the surrounding country were still
lingering and my arrival furnished an excuse for an addi-
tional delay. Crowds of people, fifty or more, kept
around me wherever I went.

The Papagoes in the Santa Rosa valley are less
spoiled by contact with civilization than in any other
part of their country. From my note-book at this time
I take the following remarks: "I have never yet met
with a cross Papago; they are always amiable. In my
quest for specimens they smilingly admit me to their
store-rooms to inspect their fine granary baskets and
other kinds of baskets and utensils, and allow me to
look around inside and outside of the houses as much
as I like. On the other hand, they have no tact; they
seat themselves unconcernedly in a folding easy chair of
mine, or go to the box in which I keep my collections and
take out all the things to look at. They are always on
hand at meal-times; they dive with delight into the box
of crackers set before them, and are very fond of coffee. "

They were rather a crude type, but pleasant to deal
with, and were continually bringing things for me to buy.

no NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

At Anekam most of the middle-aged women and some of
the men had their faces tattooed. These facial markings
are dark blue in color and not elaborate. Common to
both sexes is a thick line under the eyes, passing the
outer angle of the eye and continuing parallel to the
mouth until it nearly reaches the hair. This is almost
becoming, reminding one of the way actors darken
the eyelids. Men have besides markings on the fore-
head, and women, on the chin, have waving parallel
lines descending from each corner of the mouth. Tattoo-
ing has been discontinued; the marks used to be ap-
plied with thorns from the sahuaro, taken from the top
of the plant, and the charcoal of greasewood. Its pur-
pose is somewhat doubtful. For men the reasons given
were to draw blood from the eye; for women, to avoid
getting wrinkles early. Generally women were the oper-
ators. After having been tattooed, salt was not eaten
for a month.

A curious case of a woman nursing her two children
of different ages came under my observation here. When
seated, she had the younger lying on the ground in its
primitive cradle with the large detachable shade, while the
larger one, a boy of four or five years, was playing about.
He would frequently run up to his mother and demand
his rights which were never refused. Standing up with
a large straw hat on his head he enjoyed the mother's
milk usually reserved for children of more tender years.
Sometimes children who are able to walk are kept in the
cradle.

The wellnigh universal superstition relating to flint

.c d o E >>

"' .00 2

A UNIVERSAL SUPERSTITION in

arrow-heads is also found among the Papagoes, though
one would think that sufficient time had not elapsed
since the days when the natives themselves made such
objects. Their very name is lightning stone (vihom),
and one man who presented me with one assured me
that he found it by searching the ground after light-
ning had struck near his house. Sometimes, when
lightning strikes a tree, the Indians will dig in the
ground underneath for arrow-points. It should be noted
in this connection that these Indians fear lightning, al-
though they are not afraid of thunder. Bows and arrows
are still used in Anekam in hunting rabbits, quail, doves,
etc.

Our next stop was made at Kukomalik, fourteen miles
further north, a new rancheria which owes its existence
to a fine well left by Americans who had to aban-
don an attempt at cattle-raising. At only nine miles'
distance from there, in the north-west, is Kohatk; this is
the first Pima rancheria, and the principal one of four
rancherias or villages which are found in a small extent
of country hardly thirty miles long, beginning immediately
south of the Casa Grande station on the Southern Pacific
Railroad. It may be termed the Kohatk country, being
inhabited by the Kohatk people, who are Pimas that
have, to some extent, retained their originality. They
have, at least, been less affected by the white man than
their confreres at the Sacaton Reservation, and may
possibly for a few years offer a fair field to the student.
The country traversed after leaving Anekam was singu-
larly devoid of animal life. Not even a jack-rabbit

ii2 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

seemed able to live here. The prevalent vegetation was,
as usual, greasewood with salt bushes now and then.
Low sand dunes were visible here and there.

The Pimas of Kohatk I found to be good-tempered,
affable people. The women cut their hair in front so as
to have bangs and they are good-looking. These natives
seem to be somewhat under Roman Catholic influence
and have abandoned their native feasts. Photographing
was as much detested here as elsewhere. The sight of
my camera would make the children take to the woods
and the old men hurriedly disappear on hands and
knees into their dome-shaped huts.

I heard neither English nor Spanish spoken, but the
inhabitants have adopted the frontier man's way of living,
frying their meat in lard and adding quantities of it to
their beans. They buy white flour and make unwhole-
some tortillas in boiling lard. This heavy, poorly cooked
food forms their daily regime, without any variety. A
small bucketful of coffee is distributed at meal-time both
in the middle of the day and in the evening. They pos-
sess cattle but, like most white ranchers, are too lazy to
milk the cows. The meals are appropriately served on
plates of cheap crockery and cups bought in the white
man's stores. The participants give audible evidence of
consuming more lard than is good for them, and, were the
facts known, "to be as dyspeptic as a civilized Indian"
would be an adage. Think of the anomaly of leaving
wholesome, natural, well-cooked dishes for a diet of lard
and the cheapest kinds of canned goods.

Contrary to the universally accepted opinion, the cui-

ATTRACTIONS OF THE SIMPLE LIFE 113

sine of barbarous Indians is excellent. To be sure, they
have few dishes, but there is variety enough, and an im-
portant fact is that the food is never "killed," i. e., over-
cooked, as is the all too common habit of the poor white
man; the food retains a natural, pronounced flavor of its
own, unknown to most whites, besides having all the
life-giving elements. After all, nothing tastes as well as
the simple things, well cooked. What is better than the
whole wheat cakes of the Papago Indians of Sonora ?
They are nature's genuine gift to hungry men, furnish-
ing at the same time extreme satisfaction to one's sense
of taste. I know of an American who came across this
dish fit for kings in a corner of Sonora, to whom it was
such a revelation that he ordered two sacks of the flour
to be sent to his distant home. The primitive Indian
way of cooking beans in clay vessels without lard is un-
surpassed for preserving the inherent flavor of the bean.
No one can cook squash as my modest Indian hostess or
make an atole bianco (thin gruel of maize) like hers; even
the Mexican women cannot compete with her in this.
The green corn that is offered in early autumn in fash-
ionable restaurants in New York as a native delicacy
ought to bring a blush of shame to the chef's cheeks,
watery and devoid of flavor as it is.

Apart from the stultifying process of jumping liter-
ally, as the saying goes, from the frying-pan into the
fire in their effort to imitate the white man, there is a
very sad feature connected with the abandonment of
native dishes. Indigestion and a one-sided diet under-
mine the strong constitution of the Indian, enfeeble his

ii4 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

blood, and leave him with little power of resistance to
his great scourge, tuberculosis. According to my inter-
preter, who is an observant man, it is no uncommon
occurrence among the Papagoes who have adopted the
white's man's cooking, even to die from indigestion.
Next to brandy, lard is the greatest curse civilized man
has brought to the Indian.

After a warm and cloudy night we had the somewhat
rare experience of four hours of rain in the forenoon.
Still, in the afternoon, as the rain had not been so very
heavy, we decided to return to Kukomalik, thinking we
might get there in an hour and a half by driving a little
fast. We made our way very well up to about a mile
within our destination, when our horses began to en-
counter difficulties. The land here was slightly de-
pressed and therefore retained the newly fallen rain as a
reservoir on its alluvial soil. The ground became very
soft, and finally, in spite of heroic efforts, our horses
could pull no more. The night had overtaken us with
darkness, deep as in Egypt of old. Pablo went to look
for a team to pull us out, while I remained behind try-
ing to light a candle which the insects aggressively put
out. At ten o'clock the moon rose and made the out-
look a little bit more cheerful.

A fresh team of Indian horses after a while came
splashing through the water, but they proved inadequate
for the task, and we had to camp where we were. The
mud was of the kind of which adobe is made and stuck
to our shoes like clay, but there was no necessity for
walking around much. There were a few mezquite

MOSQUITOES EFFICIENTLY BALKED 115

sticks lying about, and lots of resinous toviso bushes
were growing near, so we could make a fire and had
excellent beef soup. Pablo arranged a comfortable bed
for himself by pulling up a number of the same generous
bushes. I also helped my dog to secure comfort for the
night, his usual tactics being to lie down on top of a
bush, thus pressing the branches to the ground by his
weight. As for myself, I again enjoyed the usefulness
of my folding cot which, on account of its height, prevents
any discomfort from boggy or slightly uneven ground.
There were some mosquitoes about, but I slept well
after smearing my face and hands with an effectual
protection of French-Canadian origin which I can
confidently recommend. It consists of seventeen parts
olive oil, one part carbolic acid, and two parts oil of
pennyroyal. The humidity of the air, however, was
surprising, for my blankets were found in the morning
to be thoroughly wet, as if they had been exposed to
rain.

Shortly after sunrise our Papago returned with his
two horses and a shovel. The four horses stamped
timidly in the mud and could not at first be brought to
pull together. Through continued and frantic efforts on
the part of us all, the wagon moved forward again. After
having spent a few hours at the rancheria drying our
things in the warm sun, we returned to Anekam where
people were glad to see us again, and the next day found
us once more at Santa Rosa in the evening.

CHAPTER VIII

SCORPIONS— A STORM IN THE DESERT— HOW THE SAHUARO WINE
IS MADE— THE SAHUARO FEAST AT SANTA ROSA— A GREAT REN-
DEZVOUS—SOCIAL AMUSEMENTS OF THE PAPAGO— SUCCESS AT
COLLECTING SPECIMENS— STUCK IN THE MUD— WONDERFUL
CHANGE IN THE LANDSCAPE— A VALUABLE VEGETABLE— PART-
ING WITH PABLO

My little house in Santa Rosa I found occupied by
guests who had arrived to take part in the much-her-
alded sahuaro feast that was soon to be celebrated. I,
therefore, drove the wagon up to some erect poles, the
remnants of a shed, and put up my fly between these
and the wagon. During the night I awoke from what
first seemed a disagreeable dream, but which proved to
be an intense pain in the little toe. I applied some ex-
tract of rattlesnake beans, which a friend of mine had
induced me to take along as a ready remedy against the
bites of poisonous snakes and other troublesome creat-
ures. The pain seemed to come from the nail, as if it
were being forcibly bent backward, but after a couple of
hours it subsided sufficiently for me to fall asleep again.
In the morning the foot was swollen and I could not
wear my shoe, but after twelve hours I was all right
again. Perhaps the mischief was due to a small scor-
pion, though the Japanese doctor in Caborca, to whom
I related the occurrence, seemed to think that it was a
case of a very poisonous ant of Arizona noted for the
extreme pain caused by its bite.

116

OBNOXIOUS CREATURES 117

•

There is a large scorpion (hadrurus hirsutus) found
in these parts, four and one-quarter inches long, which,
however, is not as poisonous as the smaller species.
Late one evening, while searching for something with
my lantern, I came across one running along the ground,
and which appeared at first sight to be a mouse. It was
killed and left in an open vessel to be put in alcohol the
next day. In the morning I found that the ever-present
and hungry hens of the Indians had already taken care
of it. With the exception of scorpions, there are not
many obnoxious creatures in the region. Rattlesnakes,
of course, there are, but they should not be classed in
the same category with the rest, because they always
give warning of their presence, besides being perhaps the
only snakes known to be good-tempered. According to
the Indians, few horses and cattle are bitten; they know
the rattlesnakes and turn away when they hear the
sound; dogs also know them. Children in the West
have been known to lift them up unharmed, and the
extraordinary performance of the Hopi Indians carrying
them alive in their mouths may be called to mind. I
never like to kill a rattler.

On Sunday morning, August 8, dark, nimbus clouds
were gathering in "threatening" fashion, as the inhabi-
tants of countries with normal rainfall would say, but
here where the very existence of the people is dependent
on a few showers in July and August, they awakened
joyful expectations. The prospect of rain was at that
time uppermost in everybody's thoughts, day in and day
out. It means success in raising crops, the filling by the

n8 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

rain of dams and rock cavities, which will ensure drink-
ing water for man and beast until the next summer and
the growing of grass to keep cattle and horses alive.
People of the desert learn, however, to be very patient
about the arrival of the blessed water of the clouds and
conservative in their estimate of rain prospects. Usu-
ally the clouds pass away to reappear again the next day
and many more days, resulting often in mere gusts of
wind. Since early morning we had heard thunder in
the south-east, and later also from the north-west and
west. Lead-colored, heavy clouds were gathering every-
where. Still, when the storm came, it took us somewhat
by surprise. Even the Indian visitors had their bed-
ding left on the ground when the dust storm, the ad-
vance guard of the rain, fell upon us, travelling forty
to fifty miles an hour.

Pablo and I hurriedly rolled up my bedding, putting
that and a few important things that I could seize in
the short time allotted inside of the ancient house with
the small entrance. The rest, among them a camera
and a box containing films, I covered as well as I could
inside of the wagon. Pablo, as usual, did not have his
ropes ready to fasten the wagon cover securely, and it
threatened to blow away. In shorter time than it takes
to tell it, the rain was upon us. He threw his quilt into
the opening of the cover to protect the baggage and collec-
tions; then he hurriedly made his escape into the hut where
I had just sought refuge from the fierce outburst of rain
and wind.

The storm abated somewhat ere long, but was im-

AFTER THE RAIN 119

mediately succeeded by others, and when finally, after
two hours, the weather calmed, the arroyo at the back
of the houses was roaring as if in joy at being born a
river again. Before the rain was over the children were
playing in the newly made ponds. Soon the grown-ups
appeared on the scene, all much animated. While Pablo
and I started to dry and clean our things, they enthusi-
astically resumed their interrupted preparations for mak-
ing the wine, which was to play such an important part
in the approaching sahuaro feast. Juan had already
evacuated his hut the day before in order to devote it
to wine making. Early in the morning men had brought
large earthen jars belonging to his and the neighboring
houses, and the jars were now resting safely in cavities
that had been dug in the earthen floor of the hut, twigs
of fresh greasewood as usual forming their immediate
support.

As soon as the rains ceased a procession of women
started off to fetch the necessary water for the wine
making. The cheery women, each superbly supporting
a shining olla on her head, looked picturesque as they
walked one after the other through the greasewood
bushes in the beautiful light after the storm. Two trips
had to be made and the full jars were all deposited out-
side of the house, to be used as soon as the clay vessels
containing the sahuaro sirup were opened; of these
there were a dozen medium-sized on hand, all neatly
sealed.

About one o'clock in the afternoon the solemn work
of mixing the sirup with water began. Two young

izo NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

men seated on the ground under the jacal in front of
Juan's hut and facing the east began these operations.
The sweet stuff was first poured into a large and deep
water-tight basket, with symbolic designs in the weaving,
one placed before each young man. Water was poured
into this, in the proportion of two-thirds to a third part;
sometimes half and half is used. The operators, who
had their shirt sleeves turned up to the elbow, mixed
according to rules and regulations. Slowly stretching
their hands, palm down and forward, over the fluid,
they would immerse them and draw them along the
bottom toward themselves, then rubbing the hands twice
against each other over the fluid. This was repeated
several times. As a change they sometimes dipped
them into the liquid, lifted up what the two hollows of
the hands would hold, and rubbed it into foam, con-
tinuing rubbing until the foam disappeared. An elderly
man then tasted the mixture, carried the basket into the
house, and emptied it into one of the big jars. This
procedure of mixing lasted nearly four hours. In the
same way the brewing of the much esteemed wine was
commenced that day not only in the Big House, but
in many of the private dwellings of the great rancheria.
Usually several families unite forces at one house and,
when the official feast of two days is over at the lodge,
people gather at the houses to drink and get drunk.

Shortly after sunset that day, the loud voice of the
herald who calls the meeting to order, sounded from
the lodge. His exhortations lasted several minutes, and
although I at a distance could not distinguish the words,

Desert willow in bloom, June

Papago woman carrying water

The dam at Santa Rosa. Made by the Papagoes

DANCING AND SINGING 121

I have no doubt that his voice, which rang clear
in the quiet night, carried over the entire rancheria.
What he was saying was, of course, known to every-
body; hearing the call was enough to summon them for
the important event. People were slow in assembling
and the dancing began late. The long string of eagle
plumes over the dancing place, that had been a promi-
nent feature in the arrangement at the former sahuaro
feast in which I took part, was missing here. During
an accidental fire in the house of the keeper with the
ominous name, the sacred emblem had literally gone up
in smoke. A band of medicine-men, some of them called
from a considerable distance, were making up for the
defect. There were four of them inside the circle, walk-
ing around in a row, moving their plumes and invoking
the rain. At times they would dance about like children
gesticulating wildly with their plumes. Two of them
wore cast-off garments of whites, and one in a long,
smart-looking mackintosh, looked especially ludicrous,
cutting extraordinary capers to induce the rain to come.
The dancing and singing were on a much larger scale
than at the feast I had previously attended, as befitted
such an important locality as the Santa Rosa. The
leading singers, as well as a few of the others in the
circle of about a hundred dancing and singing men
and women, had astonishingly powerful voices. There
was an atmosphere of order and sincerity and devotion
among the participants. Very noticeable was a woman
leader, who walked next to the man who, swinging his
rattle and singing, leads the whole procession. She had

122

NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

an extraordinary soprano that would have done credit
anywhere, untutored to be sure, but rich, sonorous, and
of great force. She was the wife of the Keeper of the
Smoke, and had a married granddaughter!

For about an hour I danced and sang, making my
way in among the leaders. Their singing was almost

THE "FROG DOCTOR"

A PAPAGO RAIN SONG HEARD AT THE SAHTJARO FEASTS
-I N

IE3

Pa - pa - t ma - ka - i

Frog doctor

ottfl

ka - na

- pa

Frog

- t

V mr i

/T B

IT n " J

1 "!

h K i

1 > *v

1 i

is\) m J

I i R

tD m

-#- -0-

J.. • V

-4- -#-• -♦-'

•m-

-0-

-&-

ma - kai ka - na

doctor

im na - katsh - i nju - hu - ta

continually sits sings

tf:

V- -J> '

Va - shan

yonder

D]U

yo - pa - ka

spring forth

hu - va - ho

winds

ifeft

-#-

-<s>-

-#-

kvin

- hong

Si - ni -

va - os

end

(make) me

wet

k6 - kvin - hong: i - ni - va - os si - ta - 1 - ma.

(without meaning)

The frog is thought to possess powers of a medicine-man (makai). Being
connected with water he is, according to Indian belief, able to influence the com-
ing of rain and is therefore implored to assist in bringing moisture to the earth.

deafening, and after a while I walked home to my camp,
enjoying the singing better at the distance of a mile.
The next night, near my bed time, it sounded especially
well; they were singing the "Frog Doctor," a song
about rain and moisture that I had learned, and which
has the distinction of being in the major key. I could

THE GODS HAVE HAD THEIR SHARE 123

follow the words at that distance. In their enthusiasm
they seemed to be trying to wring the rain from the gods,
and above them all could be heard that wonderful so-
prano. Every time a new stanza came around, they
intoned as is their custom the first words with all the
power of their lungs, giving the singing a triumphant
expression.

During the two nights of singing and ceremonies,
the wine was getting ready for consumption on the
third day, at which time people gathered outside the
lodge to the number of some five hundred, including
many who had not taken part in the exercises. Many
came to drink wine at the houses of their friends and
relatives, and had been invited from such distant places
as Florence on the Gila River and San Pedro in Sonora,
everybody first having been present at the distributing of
the wine at the lodge.

Young boys on horseback had been in evidence in
the morning, racing joyously with each other and rais-
ing dust wherever they went. Some of them were pre-
maturely under the influence of liquor, the result of the
inroads of civilization. It is characteristic of the primi-
tive Indian to be strict and formal in his religious ob-
servances, but after the festival, when the gods have had
their share, he, too, wants a good time and takes it. The
rising generation, breaking away from their native cus-
toms, make no such fine distinction.

People came on horseback or in wagons, some of
them in light carriages; one well-to-do Indian from
the northern part of Baboquivari arrived in quite a

i24 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

smart turnout with two white horses and had a well-fed
dog running alongside. He wore spectacles and brought
his family with him. It was a curious assemblage in
the desert. There was as yet no shouting to be heard or
any other noise than that of wagons rolling and horses
galloping over the sandy ground, but the scene was one
of bustling activity that reminded one of a race-track
meeting.

The ceremonies began at noon and only a minority
of those present could sit down on the dancing place
and take an active part; most of them had to be spec-
tators, standing or sitting on their horses around the
square of human rows. Beyond these, wagons had
been drawn up which were filled with standing specta-
tors. The chief passed me in the throng and said he
was glad to see me at the feast. He hoped I would
make the most of it and see everything; I thought he
might have invited me to take a seat among those on
the "ground floor." However, any one who liked was
free to do so if he were able to squeeze himself in. As
it was, I preferred to be where I stood.

People were in their very best finery, and some of
the women were a sight to behold in gaudy colors, not
exactly the cheapest stuff, for the present-day Papago is
well-to-do and wants the best, although he does not want
to pay high prices. The most conspicuous dresses
seemed to be made from mercerized silk, very thin,
and were fair copies of the prevailing fashions among
white women in town or on the ranch. The Papago
woman is clever and cuts her clothes herself, sewing

WHEN MAN MAKES A FOOL OF HIMSELF 125

them on the machine, which she owns or borrows from
her more fortunate sisters. Petticoats are considered
less necessary. At Juan's ranch, on which was my
camp, the women folks had been working for two days
to get their dresses ready for this occasion. Until mid-
night the running of the sewing machine could be heard
from the little house I had at first occupied.

The ceremonies and speeches proceeded in the same
manner as those I had witnessed before. The wine was
distributed only to the fortunate ones seated in the
square, and there was not much of it either. After an
hour the whole affair was over and people dispersed to
the different houses, where the brew of the season was
awaiting them. To be present at the revelries which fol-
lowed was not pleasant. It was a good-tempered crowd,
but drunken people are nuisances, whether in civiliza-
tion or among barbarians. However, if anything, there
is some excuse for a barbarian to get drunk, for he thinks
it is the will of the gods, and that it helps to bring about
rain. Moreover, his native intoxicant, indulged in only
on certain religious occasions, does not do him much
physical harm.

There were some ludicrous sights to behold, mingled
with pathetic. Two women on the point of starting for
home were seated in a wagon, both visibly under the
influence of the sahuaro wine. They were conversing
and weeping in their effusive feelings for each other,
while a suckling infant at the breast of one of them was
adding to the wail from a quite different sentiment. A
thick-set, resolute woman with a nice face, an acquaint-

126 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

ance of mine from Anekam, took charge of her drunken
husband, trying to get a start for home. The board that
closes the hind part of the wagon had been taken out,
as if ready for loading; she invoked the help of a sober-
looking young fellow and, with their combined efforts,
the heavy bulk of her husband was landed safely in the
wagon. The young man next, in a most informal way,
helped the corpulent lady herself to climb up by grabbing
hold of one of her legs and shoving her upwards with all
his might, as if she were a log.

It became necessary for me to begin my return journey
to Tucson, and I proceeded first to a rancheria, which is
in close proximity to Santa Rosa. I had learned that
an old man who had given me valuable information at San
Xavier was living here, and I desired to see him again.
He turned out to be the most influential person there and
was very kind. True, he accepted an unusual amount
of presents in the shape of provisions, tobacco, etc., but
his good-will was well worth the price. The people were
encouraged by him to sell me what I wanted and there
was no loss of time from having to coax and wait or
having to dispel suspicions and fear. Everybody was
obliging and glad to sell. Some went to the practising
enclosure of the place and rifled it of anything I might
desire and they all searched their houses. It was as if I
had come to a primitive tribe in Australia. I secured
good masks and a complete clown's outfit, the best so
far, including a pouch in which tobacco and medicine
plumes are carried.

At my request a man was sent to Anekam to try to

DISAPPOINTMENTS 127

procure an old shield used in Apache fights, which was
said to be in the possession of a young man who had in-
herited it from his father. When a Papago dies his per-
sonal effects are buried with him, with the exception of
his weapons which are hung in the houses of friends or
relatives until they decay. If the deceased had played
some role at the great harvest festival, his mask and other
sacred paraphernalia are also taken care of by his sur-
vivors. I therefore had hopes that my messenger might
return with this at present priceless object. But alas!
the young man to whom the shield had been entrusted, im-
bued with the new notions of his generation and at the
same time fearing that some harm might come to him
from keeping an object of so much superstitious awe, had
burned it a few years ago.

Evidently the rainfall of the night before we started on
our return had been heavier in the region eastward, the
ground in many places being unusually boggy. Our
immediate aim was Aktjin, a large rancheria south-east
of Santa Rosa, and we had been instructed about the
roads, which are little travelled in these parts. Unfor-
tunately, Pablo, who had never been here before, took the
wrong track, the boggy places grew more frequent, and
we could proceed but slowly. At one place, evidently part
of a wide arroyo, we travelled for fifty yards through
muddy water, which reached even to the hubs of the
wheels. The danger of being stuck fast in the mud
seemed imminent, but our horses were plucky and they
finally pulled us through. We congratulated ourselves on
our luck and decided to take lunch then and there. For

i28 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

the sake of comfort, I turned up my trousers to the knees
and walked about in bare feet on the wet and sticky soil.
It did not seem possible that we were in a desert region.
That part of the country is extensive and uninhabited;
the soil is rich and it would make a splendid agricultural
district. Even if there were not rains like this every year,
one might build dams and sink wells. Our horses had
splendid grass to eat and we had a good lunch.

It now looked as if we were to have plain sailing and,
although we were on the wrong track, we hoped in some
way to reach before dark a small rancheria, "Yellow
Caterpillar," which was near our destination. This ran-
cheria owes its name to the prevalence of an edible cater-
pillar in the neighborhood. We had not travelled long
when we came abruptly upon the banks of quite a deep
arroyo that had to be crossed. The mud was knee-deep
and the bank on the other side unusually steep; however,
there was nothing else to do but to go ahead. Full of
confidence in his horses, Pablo urged them on and up
the steep, short bank which they very nearly cleared;
two inches more would have sufficed, but they fell back
and the heavy wagon stuck in the mud up to the axles.
We dug around the wheels and pushed and worked in
vain; the wagon was not to be moved. Then we had
to unload its manifold contents: boxes, bags, and bundles,
Papago baskets of all sizes, pottery, bows and arrows,
sahuaro poles, wooden ploughs, and a host of things too
numerous to mention were carried to the top of the em-
bankment. It was nearly sunset when we were again
able to start. Water and grass were plentiful now, so we

UNEXPECTED AID 129

soon made camp among the greasewoods. After dark,
coyotes approached us within twenty yards, howling as
if deriding us.

In the morning my dog, Mavit, the Papago name for
mountain lion, killed a lizard and showed his satisfaction
by rolling over it in joy. He also discovered a rattlesnake
under a greasewood near our kitchen, but was wise
enough merely to bark at it. Pablo remained long look-
ing for his horses which had been allowed to graze at
large. He had walked about eight miles before recover-
ing them and had seen no trace of any habitation. "I
wish somebody would come along to tell us the road," he
said as we were having breakfast. Almost at the same
moment, as if by magic, a party of three Papagoes on
horseback appeared in the distance. We immediately
went after them and brought two of them back to join our
breakfast, one being willing to guide us to the "Yellow
Caterpillar." They informed us that we were now
camped on an Indian road to Silverbell. By following
slightly elevated ground among the greasewoods we ar-
rived safely at the rancheria. Here a light wagon was
hired, as dilapidated a one as I ever saw, to visit Aktjin,
an extensive rancheria in the neighborhood.

Two young men who were ploughing denied the pos-
session of any masks. The next house visited happened
to be theirs, and, on making the same inquiry here, the
mother-in-law of one of them obligingly brought forth for
our inspection a jar, the opening of which had been sealed
in the usual way by a piece of pottery and mud. She
broke it open and revealed to our admiring eyes a singer's

1 3o NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

and a clown's masks, which were kept inside. They be-
longed to the two young men. The singer's mask was
just the kind I needed to complete my collection, and I
hurriedly made a sketch of its decorative designs before
returning it to the owners. Nothing would induce them
to part with it, for they said that these things were worth
a great deal to them.

Owing to several showers lately, the country in the
middle of August had changed its aspect and was clothed
in the opulent dress of summer, suggesting little of the
desert. Leaves and grass and flowers had appeared in-
credibly fast. In the pools I took my baths, and around
the mezquite trees, where the grass was growing thickest,
the horses feasted on nature's bounty. The mezquites,
the modest leguminous trees of the arid region, and the
greasewoods looked beautiful in the glory of the summer.
The air was permeated with the scent of the blossoms of
the cat-claw, an acacia armed with more terrific spines
than any other tree of these regions. The ocotillo was in
leaf, yellowish-red poppies grew in the tall grass, and the
ground was covered in patches with a kind of small yel-
low marguerites which emitted a refreshing fragrance, and
among which it was a delight to place my cot at night.
This is a great country for morning glories (ipomcea) ; there
are at least ten species and, in the thickets along the
arroyos, intensely blue flowers of this kind had entwined
themselves around the bushes and seemed to cheer one
on. In three or four weeks this would be all changed,
the flowers turned to seed and the grass dry and gray.

In and near the fields of some of the ranches, where

THE MAGIC OF THE RAIN 131

the soil was rich, the quelite, in Spanish bledo (amaranthus
Palmeri), grew in great profusion, sometimes presenting
the appearance of a large, dark, dull-green mass of vege-
tation. This plant, when young and tender, furnishes
an excellent vegetable much relished by the Indians, but
as only an insignificant part of the luxuriant growth is
utilized, in his fields of agriculture it becomes the most
formidable weed he has to contend with. When freshly
gathered and immediately cooked, this vegetable is su-
perior in taste to spinach, resembling more in flavor
fresh asparagus. In the neighborhood of Tucson it is
appreciated by Indians and Mexicans alike during its
short season, though the Anglo-Saxon, in his assumed
superior knowledge, has so far ignored it. Quelite, in-
expensive and easy to cultivate, should be accepted by civil-
ized households. It grows prodigiously fast and several
crops may be raised in a year.

On the morning that we passed north of the Babo-
quivari Range, the fog climbed slowly along the sides
of the mountains, after a while resting like snow-white
clouds over the crests and giving them a superb aspect
against the light blue sky in the pure, clear atmosphere.
It was as if one had been suddenly transported to the
moist, temperate zones of the earth. The arroyo west of
Robles Ranch ran full of water, as a broad river in flood.
Some Indians whom we met had been obliged to spend the
night on the bank without being able to cross until the
morning. As we passed the last branch of the newly
made river which was hurrying along to disappear soon
in the desert, four Mexican cowboys appeared on horse-

i32 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

back against the sky on the embankment. They looked
picturesque as they approached the water, but, on per-
ceiving my kodak, they immediately stopped and posed
for me, as if from a signal, for Mexicans are immoderately
fond of being photographed. There was no interest in
such a picture of men posing to look beautiful, so I put
my kodak away and we continued the crossing.

My last night before reaching Tucson was spent
mostly under the wagon on account of a shower. In this
part of the country, where the storms of the brief wet
season, July and August, come from south-east or east,
the wagon should be placed for the night north and
south on account of the protection its broadside affords,
as the storms are fierce, especially in July, although
local and limited in duration. In spite of inconven-
iences I had suffered from lack of a tent, the trip had
been a successful one. The charm of the wilds had
seized me again. No mode of life is equal to that of
camping out, if one knows how, and no life so engaging
as that spent in the hope of adding to human knowledge.

In Tucson I parted with Pablo who, not speaking
Spanish, would be less useful in Mexico, which I pre-
pared next to enter. He had been a pleasant and effi-
cient companion and assistant. It is true he was care-
less and could never keep things in their proper places;
on our trip he gradually lost most of his own belongings,
his pillow, his valise, and what not, but he was always
able to manage in some way. He had little or no sys-
tem, for, as long as our journey lasted, he never packed
and accommodated the baggage twice exactly in the

AN EDUCATED PAPAGO 133

same way. Although he lost some trifling thing of
mine, he managed never to break or injure any of my
belongings.

He was not an ordinary man by any means. He had,
he said, read the Bible twice; the story of the creation and
the prophecies interested him most, as well as Christ's
sayings, which he did not think people lived up to. He
was fond of historical reading, had a great liking for
Longfellow's "Courtship of Miles Standish," and ap-
proved of the reports of Mr. Leupp, the Indian commis-
sioner. He was also fond of reading newspapers and
magazines. His moral ideas were of the highest order
without being in the least artificial. Quick in action and
punctual in keeping an engagement, he combined respect
for truth with absolute honesty. Kind, hospitable, and
confiding, he remained essentially Indian, but his liberal
education and his fondness for reading had developed
him into an independent, thinking human being. In
view of the distressing, nay sickening, effect on native
races all over the world from contact with the white
man, often due to the missionaries themselves, it is a
cheerful sign of the times that they are beginning to
revise their methods of conversion.

CHAPTER IX

IN MAGDALENA, MEXICO— THE STATE OF SONORA— THE YAQUI
INDIANS— AN ATTACK OF DYSENTERY— TRINCHEBAS, THE RE-
MAREA.BLE ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS— ANTIQUITIES OF THE
PAPAGUERIA— ALTAR— CABORCA— I START WESTWARD— PLACER
MINES— THE CHOYA— ITS TERRIBLE SPINES— ITS GREAT UTIL-
ITY—CATTLE WHICH ARE WITHOUT WATER FOR MONTHS

Again I found myself on the familiar ground of
Mexico, passing the border by Nogales, Sonora. Ten
days were first spent in exploring the country east and
north of Magdalena, a mountainous region of volcanic
origin, showing good copper indications, mostly in por-
phyry. Northward of Magdalena, for fifty miles or more,
the country is less mountainous, plains intervening more
and more, and finally affording long vistas in the direc-
tion of Nogales as well as of Altar in the West. The
vegetation in the beginning of September was yet in its
richest unfolding. Pink verbenas, violet ipomceas, and
some extremely pretty star-shaped, small blue flowers
growing in beds attracted attention. The grass was still
green and on the plains it grew in abundance, reaching
up to the horses- bellies. On an alluvial flat we rode
through an extensive mass of quelite, which had as-
sumed such dimensions that it was difficult to believe it
the same plant which a month ago would have furnished
a delicate morsel for our dinner. The erstwhile vege-
table now consisted of thick, fibrous, or wooden stalks,

134

A LOVELY VINE

135

with large appendages of branches and leaves, bent half-
way to the ground, but even thus reaching up to the
saddle and making it difficult for us to proceed. It
seemed curious that there were no cattle or horses graz-
ing in this abundance. The scarcity of wild animal life
was also striking, though we saw a deer once.

Before starting on my journey of exploration west-
ward, I first had to visit Hermosillo, the capital of the
State of Sonora, in order to secure the necessary letters
of recommendation from the government to the authori-
ties in Altar. I improved the opportunity by making a
tour of the important old port of Guaymas and from
there continuing on the newly made railroad to Culiacan,
the capital of the State of Sinaloa.

A few miles before arriving at Guaymas, the beauti-
ful vine antigonon leptopus, of Mexico and Central
America, made its appearance here and there, covering
the bushes and small trees with a profusion of pink
flowers or creeping along the ground, comparing favor-
ably in scenic effect with the bougainvillea, though dif-
ferent in color. Once or twice I saw a magnificent blue
creeper, entirely covering some low trees. A few strag-
gling and withered-looking specimens of the sahuaro
were observed in the neighborhood toward the south,
the probable limit of the southern extension of this
interesting cactus. The railroad, which will soon make
connections with Guadalajara, the second largest city in
the Mexican republic, will open up a country singularly
rich for the pursuit of wellnigh all kinds of agriculture,
and believed to contain vast resources of undeveloped

136 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

mineral wealth. It will be one of the most important
of the great railroad communications of Mexico. The
climate is very warm and the month of September did
not show much abatement of the heat. In the hotels
ice is always served with the water and it is found very
acceptable. However, in this comparatively dry region,
which is still part of the so-called Sonora Desert, one
is always reminded that the drinking water served is
very likely to be neither clean nor wholesome. It ought
to be boiled before drinking.

The State of Sonora is, as is well-known, the home of
the Yaqui Indians and the scene of war for, more or less,
one hundred and sixty years between these extraordinary
able-bodied and very intelligent Indians and the masters
of Mexico on the other hand. It is the old question oc-
curring all over the world, whether the country belongs
to the native of the soil or to the conqueror, and, without
desiring to enter into the merits or demerits of the case
in point, I should like to express my pleasure at the re-
cent termination of hostilities which were ruinous to both
sides. What soldiers can compete with men who have
been known to make seventy miles a day on foot, carry-
ing as provisions only a bag of pinole ? Their campaign
was an instance of the destruction that a well-directed
guerilla force may cause. Mining and agriculture came
to a standstill and nobody ventured outside of Hermosillo
and Guaymas without an escort. The partner of the
photographer of Guaymas had been killed by the Yaquis,
and the photographer himself had been deprived of a
large sum of money by them, so he entertained no kindly

The old way or hauling freight in Mexico, now disappearing

Bringing bat guano to Corral railroad station in the Yaqui country

YAQUI CHIEFS WHO IN igog MADE PEACE WITH THE MEXICAN GOVERNMENT
To the left, in lower row, Chief Bule. His two young sons at either side

ABLE INDIANS 137

feeling toward them, but he said that their valor was
superb. A Mexican colonel and friend of his went to
the Yaqui River with six hundred and forty soldiers.
Four years later his force had been reduced to one hun-
dred and forty, and if the authorities had not transferred
them somewhere else, they would soon have had to
transfer him alone, the colonel told him. Peace, hon-
orable to both parties, had been concluded a few months
before my arrival. The chiefs received military rank of
varying degrees with corresponding salaries, pledging
themselves in return to maintain peace and order in
their respective districts.

The Yaqui, besides their own language, speak Span-
ish and are Roman Catholic, although they keep up
many aboriginal customs and beliefs. As miners and
laborers they are preferred by Americans to Caucasians
or other races. They have, which for Indians is a sin-
gular gift, great mechanical ability and learn to work
machines quicker than the whites. This I have on the
authority of Americans themselves. When the war left
Sonora without working men, Chinese and Japanese were
imported, but their work was not half as well done.
Even when fifty or sixty years old the hair of the Yaqui
remains black and their teeth are as white as pearls.

An unexpected attack of dysentery, caused by putting
too much ice in my wash-tub, compelled me to shorten
my stay and return to Magdalena, where I was ill for a
week. It may be of interest to travellers to know that
Hunyadi Janos water, two small glasses a day, was ex-
tremely beneficial in my case, and was in fact my prin-

138 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

cipal remedy. Outside of my rooms on the plaza prep-
arations were being made for the annual feast of San
Francisco, the patron saint, which was to begin two
weeks hence on the 8th of October. Two monstrosi-
ties of merry-go-rounds of the most prosaic American
manufacture, with mechanical devices for the accom-
panying noise of horribly loud organs, began operations
ahead of time, one of them being a few feet from my
window. The one melody of which the instruments
were capable — that is, if the mechanical noise could be
dignified by such a name — was produced over and over
again for hours, and it became a maddening, unbearable
torment which decided me, though in a weak condition,
to move.

With my attendant, a middle-aged Mexican from
Mazatlan, I arrived safely at a cluster of houses lying
on both sides of a street, seven miles from Magdalena,
called San Ignacio. An impressive old church presides
as usual over the village, which is remarkable as be-
ing Father Kino's second mission in Sonora, established
in the year 1687. I hoped to find a room with some
Mexican family here. Most of the houses had plots of
ground with fruit trees and some attempts at gardening.
The quiet, peaceful, atmosphere of the place was like a
soothing balm to the nerves. I stopped outside the house
of Prisciliano Ruiz, my former guide, to consult him as
to a convenient room. He himself had a small house,
consisting of a single room, which had just been vacated,
and he urged me to take it. My things were moved in
here and my cot put up between the small window and

NATURE'S OWN REMEDY 139

the door, so as to ensure plenty of air, and I felt truly
thankful to be beyond hearing of the fiesta. Sitting all
day in a garden where granadas, lemon and walnut trees
grew, but where nature itself had done most of the gar-
dening, I soon began to recover; the lovely air, nature's
cheerful surroundings, and the unobtrusive kindness of
my host and hostess making me feel better immediately.
In a day or two I was able to share their came con caldo,
the Mexican pot au feu, which includes such delicacies
as new green corn, new string beans, and squashes.

My attendant was a cargador (carrier) whose business
may best be described as being that of moving goods
which he carries on his own back. He was one of those
men who can move a piano in this manner. He hailed
from Mazatlan, where he used to make a good living as a
dock laborer, but the life was hard, he overstrained him-
self, and he was now a handy man in Magdalena, of good
reputation and much employed. Though slightly below
medium size, when at his best he had been able to carry
twenty-six arrobas (six hundred and fifty pounds). Oddly
enough, during his work he used to consume a bottle of
mescal a day, for, like all cargadores, he believed in
stimulants; it made him stronger, he would insist. Even
at the present day he was capable of carrying five hun-
dred pounds.

After six days' stay here I felt sufficiently improved
in health to return to Magdalena where arrangements had
been made for a start westward on the same day with a
wagon and two men. Though the fiesta was still several
days off, the streets were filled with throngs of people who

i4o NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

had come to deposit money with the image of the locally
famous saint — thousands of dollars — gaining thus ma-
terial benefit, besides having a good time. The saint is
especially honored by the Papagoes, who gather from dis-
tant parts of their extensive region to do homage in a very
substantial way. We met two large parties of Indians,
men and women, riding on horseback, in their best out-
fits. At dusk a party of gypsies — Hungarians, as they are
called in Mexico — passed us, also bound for the great
fiesta of San Francisco. From the town of Santa Ana
we took the road to El Tiro gold mine, which passes the
village called Trincheras, which I was desirous of visiting
on account of its remarkable ancient structures. For
three or four hours we were crossing a large, low mesa
with a predominant vegetation of palo fierro trees, the
leaves of which furnish here the sole means of subsistence
for herds of cattle. They grow fat on this, drinking
water only every third day.

Trincheras derives its name from the "trenches," as
the Mexicans call them, which cover one side of a long
mountain, at the base of which the village lies on a fer-
tile plain. There is much water under the sandy plain
and a steam pump has been erected which sends it four-
teen miles west to El Boludo gold mine. The ancient
works which I, for convenience, shall call fortifications,
run as walls along the north side of the mountain, parallel
to each other and seemingly at the same distance apart
though of different lengths. They presented an extraor-
dinary sight, made more impressive by the afternoon
sun, which, by its accompanying shadows, brought the

NOTABLE ANCIENT STRUCTURES 141

stone walls into strong relief. I counted twenty of them,
one above the other. Roughly speaking, they occupied a
height of about four hundred feet measured from base
to top, some of them attaining a length of two thousand
feet. After sunset hundreds of turkey vultures circled
over the tops of the mountain, and finally settled down
for the night on the uppermost rocks.

The mountain runs in an easterly and westerly direc-
tion and has four tops, the highest rising over five hun-
dred feet above the plain; the western is the lowest,
being hardly four hundred feet. The fortifications are
found mainly in the middle region of the slope. They
are somewhat narrow terraces, built of andesitic lava,
their front presenting fairly well-laid walls rising to the
height of a man or even higher. The four or five that
are lowest down on the slope are almost on level ground,
while the highest, which are very short, climb to the top ;
usually, however, the slopes immediately below the tops
are left without fortifications. Noticeable in the long
terraces at certain places is the widening out like a
bastion. On the south side of the mountain there are
said to be a few fortifications of a character similar to
those on the north side. Mexicans told me that on the
tops were small corrals or enclosures formed by upright
stones in the ground, which were probably abodes of the
ancient people. Broken pieces of crude pottery, metates
(grinding stones), lance-heads of hard stone, and beads
made from sea-shells have been found and may yet be
found on the terraces. There is a report from an evi-
dently reliable Mexican source that in digging a well in

142 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

the village, pieces of broken pottery were found twenty
feet below the surface, water being reached at a depth of
seventeen feet.

In the Papagueria ancient fortifications of a similar
kind to these are of common occurrence, especially in
Sonora. On the road from Trincheras to Santa Ana
they are seen on a low range called Arituaba and again
in the neighborhood of Santa Ana. They are found on
the road from Magdalena to Cerro Prieto, near the vil-
lage of San Ignacio, near Altar and Caborca, near the
Indian ranch, La Nariz, on the hill-tops near Tucson,
Arizona, and at many other places. I have visited many
of these, and while, as a rule, the idea of fortifications as
well as habitations at the top in the shape of small en-
closures of upright stones predominates, it seems as if
here at Trincheras the extensive stone structures cannot
be explained by having been fortifications solely, because
the other side of the mountain would furnish an easy
access for attack. Still less probable is it that agriculture
was pursued on these narrow terraces, where people un-
doubtedly lived, judging from the remains left of house-
hold utensils. They here seem likely to have been of re-
ligious importance, serving at the same time as places of
refuge in case of need. This is also, I understand, the
opinion of Professor W. J. McGee, who first called at-
tention to these remarkable remains. Nowhere else in
northern Mexico do the trincheras compare in magnitude
to those seen here. The ruins of La Quemada in the
State of Zacatecas are of a different character.

It is useless to speculate as to what races built the for-

t ti £ v a u J3

^ ° C O rs ->

CK> O «*~ > C

K' — < a u > P<

ANTIQUITIES 143

tifications at Trincheras beyond the certainty that they
were constructed by ancient people who antedated the
occupation of the country by the Papago. They have
left polished stone axes and nicely executed stone imple-
ments on village sites along the Altar River and even as
far west as Sonoita, while in Arizona ancient artifacts may
be found in the rest of the Papagueria, especially along
the Santa Cruz and the Gila Rivers. Grooved stone axes
are commonly encountered through this region, including
Sonoita. On this point Professor W. A. Holmes informs
me: "This is the most westerly occurrence of the grooved
stone axe in this latitude, so far as recorded, if we except a
few specimens reported from California, which, being
so exceptional, may have been carried from some more
easterly district."

Broken pieces of pottery are numerous on the village
sites, showing no high art, though apparently equal to that
of modern pueblo make. Insignificant mounds, rem-
nants of what once were houses or villages, may be met
with here and there. Pictographs on the rocks are fre-
quently seen through the region, often being found among
the fortifications, and, with perhaps a few exceptions,
they owe their existence to the same prehistoric people;
they are of a similar character as the decorations on the
earthen-ware of the region.

Often in my travels in Mexico do I think of the valor
of the early Spanish explorers and settlers — no distance
too great for them, no region too inhospitable to traverse,
no mountains too difficult of access! Valiant padres,
escorted by soldiers or otherwise, travelled everywhere in

i44 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

their zeal to make converts, bringing cattle and horses
and introducing new cereals and new methods of agri-
culture. In the field of precious metals it is astounding
how comprehensive were the discoveries of the early
Spanish settlers, their inborn instinct for metals being
undeterred by any obstacle, and often receiving assistance
from the natives. Sometimes in the wilds the traveller
is surprised to meet with an old shaft sunk in a place
where he was wondering perhaps whether he was not the
first human being to pass.

Such thoughts occupied me as I continued my journey
westward with the towns of Altar and Caborca as my first
aim. In this north-western corner of Mexico, which
must have appeared to the Spaniards very inhospitable on
account of its scarcity of water, they discovered the great
gold-bearing district around El Boludo; here are the
great placer mines La Cienega and San Francisco, which
the present generation has begun to work with renewed
energy. Along what is called the Altar River, without
running water most of the year, they found soil suitable
for agriculture, and the town of Altar was founded as well
as Caborca and other settlements that took the places of
Papago rancherias.

At a distance Altar has a certain oriental appearance
on account of many tall date palms and the Moorish
style apparent in the church tower. Most of the town,
consisting of two long streets of adobe houses, can be
dimly discerned between clusters of trees and the many
milpas (cultivated fields) that surround it. Along the
great, dry river bed are many thriving fields, which are,

SALUBRIOUS CLIMATE 145

at first sight, rather surprising, but this is due to the fact
that when the river, after heavy showers in the summer,
is running with water for a few hours, it may be for a
day, the water is diverted for irrigation. Besides, there
is always water in the sand, this being more apparent
further down the river at Pitiquito and Caborca, where
water flows permanently for short distances and is in-
geniously utilized for extensive fields of agriculture. We
must also remember that we have now arrived in a re-
gion where one good shower of rain in November is
enough to ensure a good crop of wheat in the following
May, no rain being needed except at the time of sowing.
I was shown a date palm, over ninety feet high, which
was said to be one hundred and fifty years old. Wood-
peckers had made nests in its trunk.

There are several wells or cisterns in the town. The
climate, though very hot in the summer, is dry and
extremely salubrious. No epidemic diseases thrive here.
Altar is the seat of the prefect of the large district of the
same name, which reaches as far west as the Colorado
River, and the federal government has a mining agent
here. I found an excellent jonda (small restaurant) op-
posite the post-office; a weekly paper is published, and
twice a week a stage runs to Santa Ana, bringing pas-
sengers and mail as far as Caborca. There are several
stores in Altar, but commerce and general business ac-
tivity are less than in Caborca, situated about twenty
miles further down the river, and my next stopping
place.

An up-to-date flour mill is found at this latter town,

146 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

owned by Mexicanized Frenchmen. Another mill is
being built in the neighboring small town, Pitiquito,
which is surrounded by extensive wheat-fields, and where
oranges thrive in abundance. The modern part of Ca-
borca was removed in recent times to the present situa-
tion, and is laid out ambitiously with streets as wide as
those in St. Petersburg. Dr. K. Kitazawa, a Japanese
physician, well spoken of by everybody, finds enough to
do here and among the few scattered mines and ranches
in the neighboring country. He did not know of any case
of malaria here, but there was considerable tuberculosis
among the Mexicans. There had been quite a number
of cases of pneumonia and la grippe, which among the
Papago and Yaqui Indians often develop into tubercu-
losis.

The church in the old part of Caborca is an unusu-
ally beautiful building, noble in its architecture. Al-
though the old mission of Caborca did not possess as
many head of cattle as that of Cocospera, which at one
time, according to J. F. Velasco, branded annually ten
thousand head, still it was equally rich. Its wealth was
derived from agriculture, and the bountiful crops of
wheat, peas, beans, lentils, and Indian corn brought a
profit by which the church was erected at a cost of sixty
thousand pesos.

Formerly the Altar River passed one-half mile fur-
ther east, but its strong though short-lived waters changed
their course, carrying away some of the bank on which
the convent attached to the church rests, as well as a
part of the building. The water is at present controlled

, g&g&Sg

The church in 'old Caborca

Altar, seen from the west

A ranch, west of Altar, showing the indispensable water barrels

AMERICAN FILIBUSTERS 147

for agricultural interests, and the small stream which as
a quiet brook passes back of the church represents the
last of the Altar River, soon to disappear into the sand.

In this church it was that the population took refuge
in 1857 to defend itself against the American filibusters
under the command of Captain H. A. Crabbe who in-
vaded the pueblo. The presidente of Caborca accom-
panied me up into the tower to show me the marks of
the enemy's bullets. The Americans had entrenched
themselves in a private dwelling opposite, maintaining
probably a well-directed rifle fire. A Papago Indian
saved the day for the Mexicans by ingeniously attaching
fire to an arrow which he shot from the tower onto the
straw roof of the American fortress, thereby succeeding
in igniting it, which forced its surrender. The Ameri-
cans were all shot, for times were rough in those fron-
tier days.

The Papago Indians of Caborca number eight fam-
ilies who live in the suburbs, most of them making their
living by working for the Mexicans. Two families still
possess nice, large fields where both maize and wheat
are raised and where splendid specimens of the wild fig
trees (Spanish, higuera) were conspicuous; this fruit is
gathered twice a year and eaten fresh or dried. Other
fruit trees here were granadas and peach trees, as well as
the ever-present nopal cactus, which is so useful to the
natives, both stems and fruit being relished. There are
great numbers of the giant cactus growing between here
and the coast, but the fruit has not been gathered for
several years. It appears that a feast at which sahuaro

148 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

wine was drunk was dependent at Caborca on the kill-
ing of the mule-deer (called by the Mexicans buro). At
the dance which was executed in a different manner from
that of the ordinary sahuaro festival, the men carried
arrows, and the singing was accompanied by the medi-
cine-man's rasping sticks. The same kind of festival is
probably still in use among Indians west of the Altar
River.

The Indians at this place show the usual intelligence
of their tribe. One young man who had been instructed
in the knowledge of the alphabet by an American in
Quito vac, taught himself how to read. He did not read
fluently, but had almost mastered the art. Few of the
Indians here can, however, be depended upon for work,
as they are demoralized by the mescal brandy. They
seem to employ their time between earning money and
getting drunk therewith. They are no longer able to
keep up their native feasts and are rapidly disappearing
into the body of Mexican laborers. The same is the
case with the remnants of Papagoes who live in the rest
of the towns or settlements along the Altar River.

My plan had been to fit out my expedition here, but
the difficulty I experienced in trying to secure riding and
pack animals, not to speak of men of the right sort, de-
cided me to continue the journey by wagon. All traffic
here is by wagon, and it is easy to proceed by this mode
of transportation as far as Quitovac and Sonoita, two
settlements of Mexicans with considerable Indian pop-
ulations in the farthest inhabitable western part of the
District of Altar. Even a wagon proved difficult to

THE WAGON QUESTION 149

procure. The carreros (wagon owners) all seemed to be
away, though expected back.

Through the kind assistance of the Japanese doctor
I secured an acceptable interpreter, a pure-blooded Pa-
pago, Clemente, and finally, through a prominent busi-
ness man, a wagon was engaged, which was to be driven
by its owner, Alberto Celaya, an intelligent Mexican who
knew the country, having been born and raised at Qui-
tovac. Caborca being the last place for mail, I should
from now on have to depend for news of the outside world
upon some obliging traveller who, going westward, might
bring along my letters and newspapers. For the first
days or weeks one misses sorely one's mail, especially if
interested in knowing what takes place on the rest of the
globe, but after a while one gets used to being without
news, and on an expedition of this kind it is far the best
plan to go heart and soul into what is being done; a
world of one's own is created for the time being, rich in
events through the conquering of obstacles, the visiting
of new places full of interest and the observations to be
made, besides being a source of much delight to any one
who opens his heart to nature.

After so much delay I was glad to get a start. About
six miles from Caborca an old mezquite tree growing
on the eastern bank of an arroyo is passed. It has the
mark of a cross cut into the trunk, because this tree
used to be the goal of the Papago ball players of Caborca;
the judges are said to have been on horseback. A few
hours later our wagon, which was guaranteed to be in
first-class condition and looked it, suddenly gave us a

i5o NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

great surprise by breaking down. Clemente, the Pa-
pago interpreter, tall and long-legged, immediately started
on a fast run in order to overtake an empty wagon that
five minutes before had passed us rather briskly on the
llano. As he ran he fired three shots from his pistol to
attract the driver's attention, and after an hour or more
brought the wagon back. The goods were transferred
and Clemente and I made our camp near Tajitos, a small
gold mine, until our driver returned from Caborca with
a new wagon, which he had managed to borrow.

We passed Norias, a gold placer mine, where a small
number of Mexicans and one Indian family live. The
Papagoes, both father and son, had discovered mines.
The father's discovery had once been thought important,
and he had received four thousand dollars for it, which
was spent long ago in the usual light-hearted fashion of
the miner. The old man, humorous and frank, con-
soled himself with the fact that he owed nothing and
owned a wagon. Westward of this placer mine among
the hills toward Cozon are many now abandoned gold-
fields that yielded short-lasting but rich harvests to those
engaged in "dry washing" the surface. Bonancita, San
Perfecto, San Luis, and Hornitos are familiar names to
the few who know the history of this part of the Dis-
trict of Altar.

At the Ranch Garambullo (the name of a thorny bush)
are living six or seven Mexican families whose water
supply is a dam which is not sufficiently large to serve
beyond a limited time, when they are compelled to leave
for other parts. Only one family, that of Sr. Santos

SPRING CACTI 151

Ortega, remains all the year around, and he and his son
gave intelligent information concerning conditions in the
arid region. He hauled water in barrels from the well at
Norias, which was mostly for household use. The cattle
in that western region of the Altar district do not, as is
well known, trouble much about drinking water, the
juicy cacti supplying largely their needs both as regards
pasture and water. Different kinds of opuntias are their
favorites, both the nopal cactus, with flattened stems, and
in particular the cylindrical forms which are comprised
under the Mexican name choya. There is probably no
plant in the desert that has such formidable spines as the
choya blanca {ppuntia fulgida), which is covered with so
many light-colored spines that the whole plant appears
whitish, and hence its name. It is dangerous to approach
them, as they even pierce thick shoes, and the spiny joints
seem to spring at you before they are touched. The
spines have to be removed no matter how pressed for time
one may be, for they are very painful and enter deeper
and deeper. Cattle do not pay any attention to these
terrible joints, but horses try to get rid of them by kick-
ing or stamping violently. Dogs are much annoyed by
them and bravely bite them off.

On one occasion my driver, frantically chasing one of
his mules in attempts to lasso it, ran unawares against such
a choya and was speared to a terrible extent. He stopped
paralyzed with agony, for the joints had entered his left
arm as far as the elbow; his hand was literally clutching
one which was deeply embedded in his flesh, and several
were clinging to his back; the slightest movement would

i52 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

augment the intense pain which may best be imagined
by any one who has been stung by one spine alone.
With sticks I removed the torturing instruments bit by
bit, while he trembled from the excruciating pain. A
person not accustomed to these spines and of less fortitude
would have been in a dangerous condition. I bathed his
hand with arnica and, strange to say, it was not swol-
len. The pain disappeared as soon as the spines were
taken out. He then set a match to the choya, destroy-
ing in this way all its spines, and went for the mule
again, but this time he was less violent in his treatment of
the animal.

Incredible as it may sound, these cacti are not de-
spised as food by cattle or by the pronghorn antelope,
although the former do not resort to them in places
where the other kind grows, which the Mexicans call
"nude," choya pelon, on account of its fewer though
scarcely less terrible spines. Its color is a darker green
and it reaches sometimes a height of ten feet. This
choya (opuntia mamillata) furnishes for at least three
months of the year the staple food as well as the only
drink of the cattle of that part of the District of Altar.
Near the mine El Plomo may be observed the largest
number of these plants, covering a space some four or
five miles long and three broad. Palo verde, palo fierro,
and mezquites grow alongside of the choyas and, when
their leaves appear, furnish another food supply. In the
stretch of country that encloses, roughly speaking, Cozon,
Garambullo, and El Plomo, it would, according to Sr.
Ortega, be possible to bring together from three to four

COW EATING CHOYA

COW SHOWING VESTIGES OF HER
FAVORITE FEEDING GROUNDS

Choya (Opuutia mamillata), relished as food by the cattle

CACTUS-EATING CATTLE 153

hundred head of cattle that ''do not drink water," to use
the expression in vogue out there.

A cow making her meals from these plants is an in-
teresting sight. The thick joint is carefully bitten off
and brought into the mouth; turning the head upward,
she works the sharp bit around with her tongue, chewing
until after two or three minutes it slips down, and then
she begins anew, evidently enjoying her meal in spite of
the pain from the thorns to which she has grown accus-
tomed. The easily detached cactus joints, which, like
gigantic burrs, fasten themselves to the head and fore-
part of her body, are allowed to drop off by themselves
after suppuration takes place in the course of four or five
days. In that country the cattle are almost always thus
decorated and they do not seem to suffer any incon-
venience. They are in that way instrumental in dis-
seminating this opuntia, sometimes at fifty miles' distance
from the starting point, and through their digestive organs
they scatter the seeds of the mezquite from one place to
another.

All who live in the desert region assert that there are
cattle which do not drink unless it rains. This seems
to be the case in spite of the fact that many months, even
half a year or more, may elapse between rains. Of this
remarkable adaptation to environment on the part of
domesticated animals, especially of cattle, I gained a
fairly complete knowledge during the many months I
spent in that arid region. In the middle of April, 1910,
I again had occasion to pass Garambullo. During the
preceding winter water in the dams ran short in December,

154 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

and since then the cattle had not drunk water, but they
were in good condition and quite fat. The daytime they
would spend in the shade of the trees, but at night and
early in the morning they would feed. In this manner
they would maintain themselves until the next shower,
which more than likely would not come before July.

Sr. Ortega, at Garambullo, is also known to have
milked three or four cows without giving them water to
drink, and in regard to this he gave the following inter-
esting information: After his dam had dried up at the
end of March, 1909, he gave the calves only water every
three or four days. The cows, although drinking no
water, yielded over one litre of milk each every morning
until the middle of June. Both cheese and butter were
made, and the milk from the cows that eat choya has the
reputation of being very good. He assured me that, even
if driven to the dam, the cows did not care to drink.

The conditions in the sand dunes near the coast are,
if possible, even more remarkable. Here one or two
species of plants which the scanty winter rains call into
existence serve the same purpose as the choya. In this
connection the beautiful Oenothera trichocalyx, called by
the Mexicans herha salada, should be mentioned espe-
cially; this is extraordinarily green and juicy and much
relished by cattle and horses. As soon as the uncertain
rains of winter have made los medanos (sand dunes)
"green," as the Mexicans say, the cattle and horses are
driven there and remain three months, from February to
the end of May, absolutely without water. The cattle
do not gain flesh, but sometimes die from excess of fat.

FAT CATTLE 155

Some have been known to yield two hundred and fifty
pounds of fat. Unfortunately that country cannot sup-
port large herds, but even the horses at that time suffer
no inconvenience from absence of water to drink.

CHAPTER X

ADVENTURE WITH A COYOTE— UNUSUAL AFTERGLOW— A METEOR
—A GREAT AND FERTILE VALLEY— THE CUSTOM OF NIARI—
LA NARIZ— THE PAPAGOES OF QUITOVAC

One day, shortly after noon, as our wagon travelled
leisurely along, we had a curious experience with a coyote,
which made its appearance in the road, one hundred
feet behind us. The driver was ordered to stop the
wagon and my companions were asked to be muy si-
lenciosos, in order to give me an opportunity with my ever-
ready kodak. The coyote approached us calmly, moving
around among the bushes and sizing us up. He walked
across the road and, much to my astonishment, turned his
paces toward us.

"Perhaps he has rabies; better kill him," said Alberto
in a low voice.

"Just wait and keep quiet," I answered as the coyote
came nearer and nearer among the scanty trees and
bushes. He passed us within twenty feet, a thin palo
verde separating us, then stopped for a moment. My
terrier, which, on account of the heat, was in the habit of
never paying much attention to anything during the day-
time, was lying near the wagon, apparently asleep. The
stranger, a beautiful specimen and in fine condition, in-
quisitively approached the dog within ten feet, then

stopped again and looked at us. Probably the dog's

156

AN AUDACIOUS COYOTE 157

white color seemed odd, it being so distinct from that of
other canines of the region; perhaps he even found it diffi-
cult to classify correctly the motionless body curved up
in a ball before him in the grass. He lifted up, dog-
fashion, a hind leg, assuming the same defiant air that
dogs do when about to meet for the first time. He over-
reached himself in his boldness, however, for a slight noise
against a low branch of the palo verde, as well as a waft
of an unwelcome scent, aroused my dog to instant action.
Quick as lightning he rose and gave chase, the coyote
taking to his legs of course, but in a leisurely kind of a
gallop, which soon made my dog tired of what he evidently
considered a useless pursuit. I was able to get several fair
pictures of the coyote while he was in the neighborhood.
"How fat he was! He must have eaten many melons
and watermelons in the temporales!" my men began dis-
cussing. Perhaps good living had made him careless and
lazy. These animals are indeed destructive to the products
of dry farming; not only are they fond of eating these
fruits and the green corn, but they destroy more than
they eat, biting into melons that are ripe, perhaps fifteen
or twenty in a night.

In order to repair the faulty wheels of our wagon we
had to call at the Campana gold mine, where the super-
intendent, with the usual mechanical ability of the native-
born American, soon put us right. This mine is doing
development work and is finding good values of ore at a
depth of six hundred feet. Usually the gold mines of
the Altar district are blamed for having mere surface
values. According to the manager, the gold values of the

158 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

district have been misjudged because the mines have not
been worked deep enough.

On Tuesday, November 2, we observed an afterglow of
the sun, unusual even for that land of light, air, and color.
After sunset we had passed the unattractive looking and
abandoned mining camp, El Tren. At dusk, as we
continued our journey toward Zofii, I noticed light reddish
sunlight on the ridge, not much more than three hundred
feet high, which the road follows for several miles. Less
than the upper half of the range was covered by the light,
the lower extension line of which was horizontal. The
light, gradually fading, lasted for five minutes. When it
first appeared my watch showed it to be 5.45 p. m. Even if
my watch were fast, the sun must have set fifteen minutes
before the phenomenon appeared. For comparison, I
may mention that it was 6.27 a. m. by my watch when the
sun rose next morning over the same low range.

It should be noted that even the night was lighter
than we had expected; we had no difficulty in following
the road, although during the last fifteen or twenty
minutes it grew very dark, not, however, pitch-dark,
and we arrived at Zofii at 6.45 p. m. I found a party of
Mexican engineers, as well as a young Mexican geolo-
gist, Sr. Y. S. Bonillas, camped on this more or less
abandoned ranch. They all thought that my watch had
the right time.

The engineers were surveying the boundary line of
an immense tract of land which two enterprising young
women of Kansas City, Missouri, had bought, the min-
ing land being excepted. The territory includes a great

A BRILLIANT SPECTACLE 159

slice of the north-western part of the District of Altar
along the boundary line. Its delineation had already
occupied the engineers several months. In six weeks
they expected to finish their work, which would end at
Hacienda de Santo Domingo near Sonoita. No doubt
there are, as I later saw, large tracts of excellent agri-
cultural land that can be made profitable by irrigation,
but the speculation seems to me slightly premature.

At Rancho de Macias, on November 5, in the after-
noon, a splendid meteor was observed. The engineers
and the geologist had promised to dine with me that even-
ing in return for hospitality that I had enjoyed at their
hands. It was after dusk, but not quite night yet, and
I was unpacking some Norwegian delicacies which were
to serve as my piece de resistance, when suddenly loud
shouts of admiration were heard, "Mira, mira! no mas!"
As I instinctively turned my eyes over our wagon toward
the north I beheld a large resplendent orb, with a long
tail, passing slowly and majestically over the heavens,
roughly speaking from west to east.

The color was bluish white at the start, and the size
appeared as one-sixth the size of the full moon; the un-
usually long tail appeared as if it might be six inches
long, if seen near by. To our eyes the meteor moved
so slowly that it might easily have been photographed.
It grew smaller and smaller, both body and tail, the
latter disappearing first, when the globe itself, now yel-
lowish red, burst into two pieces, the smaller one going
upward. Perhaps a quarter of the horizon was passed.
The meteor covered fifty degrees, calculated by compass,

160 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

during the time seen by me. I caught sight of it at
about fifty degrees from north to west, and it disappeared
in the north. When first seen it was a little lower than
thirty degrees above the horizon, travelling slightly up-
ward, then downward, and disappearing from eight to
ten degrees above the horizon, which from our vantage
point consisted of low hills toward the north. It was
the most brilliant spectacle of its kind that I have seen.
When we began dinner at seven o'clock, Venus was
near the horizon, and we all agreed that the meteor had
been at least the size of the complete light of Venus at
that hour. Later I learned from the newspapers that
the same phenomenon had been observed at Altar. At
Sonoita it appeared to Sr. Isauro Quiroz as if "it disap-
peared twenty meters above the horizon, first sending
one piece to the north-west and another to the south-
east, the latter dissolving into thirty or forty red and
blue sparks, and as resplendent as the sun." Sr. Bonil-
las, the geologist, some time before, had seen one of the
same size at three o'clock in the afternoon at Nogales.

At a distance the coloring of the quite imposing
mountain El Durasno as well as of the near-by Sierra de
la Manteca, appears different from the rest of the moun-
tain ranges, having a slightly light brown tinge. But
Sr. Bonillas, who ascended El Durasno, found the for-
mation to be as usual and brought back specimens of
tufa and rhyolite with much crystalline grain in it. We
managed to drive our wagon on a side track, which runs
west of El Durasno past some temporarily abandoned
ranches. Here in the first week of November, at an ele-

GOLD-BEARING VEINS 161

vation of more than three thousand feet among shelter-
ing hills, were several plants in bloom, and much of the
grass nearest to the soil was still green. The cicadas
sang during the night.

Water is found here in a small arroyo two feet below
the surface. Also a water-hole had of late been opened
and many birds were about. There are two large gold-
bearing veins here. Some development work had been
done on one two years ago, and the other one, which
seemed to be less known, if at all, appeared very inter-
esting. We camped near a deserted small ranch. At
dusk four pigs that had been left to look after themselves
came along, bound for the corral, inside of which they
walked around several times as if preparing to camp,
but they finally continued their way. I saw them moving
around in circles among the bushes, apparently unable
to reach a decision. Clemente thought they would most
likely camp in the deserted house, for they were mansos
(tame). Every three days the pigs go to drink; my
companions calculated that their search for water would
cover at least thirty miles in going and coming.

After some forty miles' travel over the gravelly, un-
fertile, and somewhat hilly country that began a few
miles from Arivaipa, we descended gradually into the
broad, flat valley that stretches for eighty miles from the
neighborhood of Comaru in a west by north direction to
Sonoita, continuing as far as Agua Salada. Low moun-
tain ranges surround it toward the north, rising to some-
what higher elevations from La Nariz, westward, under
the names of Sierra de la Nariz, Sierra de Santa Rosa,

162 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

and the Ajo range. On the south side the most strik-
ing mountain range is Sierra de Cubabi. This great
abra or valley, like the others, of recent gravel formation
and rising slightly toward the base of the mountains,
contains in its middle course a fine detritus of much fer-
tility. To be sure, there is no water here except the short
river of Sonoita. But both Mexicans and Indians find a
profitable field for dry farming, depending solely on the
few showers of the summer, and without irrigating.

The first summer rancheria we passed, which be-
longed to Mexicans, had all the appearances of a recent
harvest of plenty, both of maize and squashes, and we
bought superb watermelons here; still there was not even
a dam, drinking water being hauled from Banori, nine
miles distant to the east. When the harvest is gathered,
this ranch, Bajio del Alcalde, is abandoned until next
summer's scanty rains bring the families back. There
is a similar temporary occupation of Mexicans at Tem-
porales, farther west, and there are three summer
rancherias of Papago Indians in this fertile stretch of
country. The permanent settlement at Sonoita is the
most important occupation, but in an extensive valley
like this only a most insignificant part of the soil has
yet been utilized. Any one who has seen the marvellous
changes brought about in the arid regions of the Gila
River through irrigation will easily understand the un-
usual opportunity presented here for agriculture on a
large scale. The middle of November is the customary
time for the harvest, which consists mainly of maize,
beans, and different melons.

Feeding on mezquite leaves

:.-. -- i

aie
■

Papago women bringing in wood, La Nariz

AGRICULTURAL CHANCES 163

There should be no great difficulty in making dams,
and still less in sinking artesian wells. I was told of a
very convenient place for a large dam in the low range
north of Temporales, near the boundary line, three or
four miles away. This valley averages eight or ten
miles in width; a few miles east of Sonoita low moun-
tains draw it together, but below that settlement it
widens again. Only the middle part, at a width of one
or two miles, probably more at certain places, is ser-
viceable. There may be found a few sandy patches in
certain localities, but, taking it all in all, this extensive
stretch of tillable soil would be well worth investigating
by people interested in agricultural pursuits, and one
may expect at no distant date the reclamation of what
is now practically a wilderness.

At the first Indian rancheria which we passed here,
we found that some of the inhabitants had just returned
from a salt expedition to the Salina de San Jorge on the
Gulf. There were four full loads of salt lying scattered
outside of one of the houses. The salt had been placed
in discarded flour sacks, two being carried inside of a
packing bag of mescal fibre, which is slung over the
back of the animal and constitutes a load. Coarse grass
is wrapped around each sack for protection, and the bag
when in use rests on two rolls of grass, which serve the
Papago as pack or riding-saddle, as the case may be.

This summer rancheria as well as the next, called
Represa de Enrique, is quite populous. At the latter
place the Indians possess a large dam. Our arrival
caused much excitement at first, due to a misapprehen-

164 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

sion, the Indians taking us to be celadores or mounted
inspectors from the Sasabe custom-house, who at un-
certain and mostly long intervals make tours along the
border line. There are two hundred miles from Sasabe
to the Colorado River, but the inspectors seldom or
never go beyond Sonoita. The Indians seemed relieved
at being correctly informed and were kind and gentle.
They no doubt understand Spanish, but if spoken to
would answer only in Papago. Two kinds of small
wading birds were noticed at the dam and in the morn-
ing up to noon the coyotes would fearlessly come to drink.
Some Mexican cowboys passing by lassoed one and then
let it go again.

On the day of our departure we passed one of the
fine fields which the Papagoes have here. The maize
had been stored away, but two huge heaps of squashes
were piled on the field ; near one of them sat two women,
cutting them up into long ribbons. When nearly dry
these are folded up in convenient bundles and kept for
winter use. There was only one small jacal in the mid-
dle of this field of plenty, and thither I directed my steps
to buy some watermelons. Here also was a woman mak-
ing squash ribbons, great numbers of which were hang-
ing, festoon-like, to dry from the branches of a tree
outside.

All these women came from other parts of the country
and were preparing to take away as much as they wished
in accordance with the ancient custom which prevails at
harvest time of those who have sharing with those who
are less fortunate. If a Papago is known to have been

ANCIENT HOSPITALITY 165

successful in his harvest, he will be visited by friends,
relatives, and many others who have no claim on him
other than the fact that they are Papago; they come to
get niari, as they call it, many remaining with him for
days. He is bound by custom to give presents of agri-
cultural products to every one who comes. Some year
when he has had a bad crop, he, in turn, may resort to
niari.

At the locality where I found myself at present, Indians
will in the season come for this purpose from as far away
as Bisani and Quitovac. Nobody is refused, for the cus-
tom is binding and absolute. With the inroads of civili-
zation and the accompanying disintegration of the tribe,
many families are unable to practice agriculture at all;
these and others, at harvest time, go visiting and return
with their donkeys and mules laden with agricultural
gifts. Also in May, when the wheat is being cut, the
Papagoes gather from many parts at the places of those
who have anything; they help in harvesting, but receive
rewards even if they do not, according to the dictates of
ancient hospitality. Among most of the Papagoes of
Arizona the custom of niari has died out, though these
natives are always hospitable and in some regions place
food before the visitor even if the family is not eating.
"To arrive at a Papago house is like coming to one's rela-
tives," said Alberto, my driver.

The woman who was sitting outside of the hut was a
widow from Quitovac and had no field. She had been
visiting the houses of the rancheria for a month, helping
the families a little by grinding corn on the metate, and

166 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

having a delightful time meeting friends and enjoying
the gifts of autumn. " When she decides to go home she
will receive loads of provisions of the new year/' remarked
my interpreter. One of the principal men of Quitovac
was making a round of calls for the same purpose. He
had only a small field himself, for at Quitovac there is
much competition with the Mexicans, but, as an Indian
said, "he has only to sit down; all is coming to him."

On our arrival at La Nariz, Thursday, November
ii, a cold, disagreeable wind from south south-west was
blowing over the llano, after dark changing to westerly,
whereupon it suddenly became northerly and warmer, the
sky clearing of some threatening clouds in the south. In
the small hours of the morning I awoke, to my surprise,
from light rain falling on my tent, which lasted for half
an hour. I had made friends among the Indians at the
last place visited, and their compatriots here did their
best to be obliging. The next day all the men gathered
outside of my tent, and we had a five hours' talk on matters
of interest to both sides. La Nariz is an Indian rancheria,
its name being derived from a near-by mountain which,
from a certain point of view, presents the profile of a
human face with a well-marked nose.

There were only five families here living in rectangular
houses of ocotillo poles laid horizontally and plastered
with mud. I found them pleasant to deal with and
anxious to preserve what there was left to them of ancient
beliefs and customs. The soul of this endeavor was an
elderly medicine-man, the principal man of the place.
Two medicine lodges were noticed here, one of them

IN THE MEDICINE LODGE 167

having had to be abandoned because a Papago woman
during a rainy night had slept there. According to the
notions of many primitive people, she was at the time
unclean, and became the cause of the building of a new
lodge. At the native cemetery many makai have been
interred who on feast occasions are invited to take part
with the living.

The old man's son had married a woman who was
reputed to be a prophet — a female makai, with whom the
principal men from Quitovac and other localities at times
consulted. She looked about thirty years old and had
been totally blind for three years. According to her own
account, she had previous to her blindness suffered for a
year from violent headache and pain in the eyes. I have
seen Indians made blind through small-pox, their eyes
covered in a similar way with large whitish spots over the
iris. In the house of this couple were held the nightly
meetings that usually took place at the new medicine
lodge, as the latter had been temporarily profaned by
the interference of an ox that had browsed and torn the
straw of which its dome-shaped roof was composed.

I proposed to my Papago interpreter, Clemente, that
we should attend that evening, as nothing worse could
happen to us than to be told that our presence was not
desired. A brisk fire was burning as we entered, making
the interior look attractive though there was no outlet for
the smoke except through the door. Several mats had
been spread on the earthen floor around the fire for the
participants to sit upon. Two were placed for Clemente
and me, on which we immediately seated ourselves, thus

168 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

being able to breathe freer in the lower stratum of air. As
soon as all were seated, including members of the family,
the old medicine-man took the word. Without further
formality he began to tell about the creation of the world
by Elder Brother Iitoi and about the deluge. After
having dwelt on these themes for half an hour or more, he
asked my interpreter if I believed the world was created
as the Papago believe, or if I entertained the belief of the
Mexicans. Clemente very diplomatically answered that
he had never asked me of my beliefs. The lore of the
tribe arouses strange feelings even in a civilized Papago,
for an Indian is nothing if not religious, and Clemente
became eloquent, confessing at the start that he, having
been brought up among Mexicans, knew little of his own
religion. A man of position from Quitovac, on a visit to
La Nariz, expressed his opinion that surely all nations
have different religions and different gods, and the Papa-
goes were contented to have theirs, Iitoi.

Among the Indians who were serviceable here was a
man of slightly darker complexion than usual, but tall
and of very fine appearance, as evidenced in his name,
Rainbow. His family were also nice and in his house I
felt at home, changing films for my camera in the cool
shade of the dwelling and even photographing the in-
mates. With him I visited ancient fortifications on the
dark looking hill, of igneous origin, hardly four hundred
feet high, which gave La Nariz its name. Where the
trenches begin, about half-way up, there is a large stone as
high as a man's chest; on its flat top were small artificial
excavations in a row, each looking like the inside of a cup,

PlCTOGRAPHS NEAR LA MaRIZ PlCTOGRAPHS NEAR CABORCA

The nose of the rock which gave La Xariz its name

EXCESSIVE MEAT-EATING 169

only more shallow. On the rocks were pictographs of
the same kind and design as may be seen elsewhere in the
district, as, for instance, near Caborca. Turkey vultures
have a breeding place on the top; according to my guide,
who has seen the young here, these birds make no nests.

Inside of the houses of the Indians in these parts, I
often noticed skins of the peccary, called in Mexico java-
lin, the meat of which is much relished by the Papagoes ;
also skins of the mountain-sheep, deer, and lynx were
seen. The Papagoes are exceedingly fond of meat. One
day at La Nariz a young steer was killed. Generous
parts of the carcass were distributed to those who had
helped to butcher it, and everybody in the afternoon,
including ourselves, was invited to come and "eat meat."
The meat was broiled on coals, each person preparing
his portion for himself, and this feasting was kept up
until eleven o'clock that night. The participants actually
arose earlier than usual, long before sunrise, to broil more
meat and continue the banquet. Nothing else was con-
sumed, not even tortillas, and in the afternoon very little of
the beast was left.

At the so-called Temporales, where Mexicans from
Sonoita and Quitovac practise dry farming, besides the
usual forms of Indian corn, a kind of maize that matures
in about two months is cultivated. It is called maiz de los
Yumas, is white in color, and the ears are small. I saw
some that had been planted in the beginning of August
and which was ripe by the middle of October. The rains
rarely fall here before August. Frost usually appears the
1 st or 2d of November. This year it came on November

170 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

14, and sometimes it comes as early as the middle of
October. However, frost does not injure maize that has
reached maturity.

Before proceeding to Sonoita, which is only twenty-
three miles from here, I made a trip south to Quitovac,
where I expected to find mail-matter awaiting me. There
used to be some gold mining here, but the houses that
make up the only street are now mostly abandoned. Two
or three Mexican families live there and a small store is
maintained. The main population consists of Indians,
who live all around, some of them being possessors of cattle
and a few having small fields. It grew dark before we
arrived, and while we were arranging our camp in the
quiet evening a young Indian rode up like a whirlwind as
fast as his horse could gallop, stopping as suddenly as he
had appeared. This is the Mexican way of " showing off "
or making oneself conspicuous, and was distinctly dis-
couraging to one who was looking for primitive people.
My two kodaks were lying on the ground and miraculously
escaped his horse's hoofs.

The principal attraction of Quitovac is the sufficiency
of water which at all times oozes forth in various small
springs at the edge of the low mesa, so-called. The latter
is a deposit of calcareous matter which a quarter of a
mile wide stretches behind the houses for a mile and a
half in the general direction from north-west to south-east.
Fossil remains have been found here, as well as at a ranch,
Represa, five leagues east, where in making a dam some
large animal was encountered five feet below the surface.
Also at Banori and other places "bones of giants" have

Height, 6.s ctm.

Height, ii. 4 ctm.

Ancient pottery vessels of the Papagueria. Excavated by Papago
Indians near Fresnal, Arizona

THE ANIMAL OF QUITO VAC 171

been found which might bear palaeontological investiga-
tion. At Quitovac Mexicans as well as Indians have dug
about a dozen small ditches, the longest twenty feet, into
the calcareous embankment for the purpose of giving the
water freer egress. Judging from these cuts, the deposit,
or mesa, rests here on fine sand at a depth of from six to
eight feet only from the surface.

The Indians have a fabulous tradition that where this
whitish deposit now rests there was once a square lake,
in the middle of which lived a big animal that ate people.
What kind of animal it was is uncertain for, as my inform-
ant, the oldest man there, said, "those who knew are
dead." It was able to smell people at a great distance,
and when travellers came that way they never returned to
their homes, for they were eaten by it. In this emergency
the Papago finally went to the cave where Iitoi lived in the
Black Mountain (Pinacate) and asked him to help them.
Iitoi said he would come and on the road he made ready
his weapons (vauk), which were of hard stone, dark in
color, and very large. He made four of them, and they
were sharp and thin, being a kind of dagger or javelin.

"If the animal kills me, you shall see red clouds to-
morrow, but if I kill the animal, you shall see white
clouds," Elder Brother said as he entered the fray. The
animal swallowed him, but he cut out its heart and made
his way out through its flesh, and it sank to the bottom.
Next day white clouds appeared around the lake, one at
each corner of the world, and the people understood that
the animal had been killed. Ever since the mesa has re-
mained white, like the clouds.

172 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

The weapons mentioned in this story were probably
made from obsidian which still serves as material for the
making of arrow-points for ceremonial use. The obsidian
is worked with a bone.

My camp was on the small plain on which the medi-
cine lodge is situated, near an unusually well-grown mez-
quite tree, the shade of which is enjoyed by participants
in the feasts that are given. In the evening spent here
I could hear talking from the medicine lodge, but the
old man, Miguel, who is in charge, complained much of
the indifference of his countrymen, the younger genera-
tion never coming any more to the counsel house. The
Indians here, in fact, are much spoiled by Mexicans and
mescal brandy, and present to-day little of interest to the
investigator. The same remark applies to the Indians
of Sonoita, though in a lesser degree. A few, just a few,
of the Mexicans exploit the Indians for their own pur-
poses. It happens even that they ingratiate themselves by
giving good advice — good for their own pockets — charg-
ing the confiding Indian for the advice. On the other
hand, it must be said that the Papagoes of Sonora are
in general treated with much more consideration than in
Arizona. The Mexicans look upon them more as their
equals, and the result is that the so-called civilized Indian
is noticeably more polite in his manners in Sonora than
in Arizona.

The great annual harvest feast for which Quitovac is
famous, and to which people congregate from all parts of
the Papagueria, is still kept up. It is performed in the
month of August on a stretch of level ground half a mile

THE QUITOVAC FESTIVAL 173

distant from the lodge. Mexicans who have seen it de-
scribe it as a gorgeous affair. Its first object is rain, and
then the preservation of good relations with Iitoi, Elder
Brother and Creator. The sacred paraphernalia are after-
ward put away in some distant cave. The feast is already
on the decline and as soon as the old man in charge at
present dies, it will no doubt pass into oblivion.

CHAPTER XI

SONOITA, AN OASIS OF THE DESERT— ITS PLEASANT POPULATION
—LESSONS OF THE SONOITA RIVER— ANTIQUITIES— A LUNAR
RAINBOW— PRIMITIVE GOLD MINING— PREVALENCE OF HYDRO-
PHOBL\— UNUSUAL REFRACTION OF SUNLIGHT

Sonoita is a larger place than Quitovac and of more
importance. This settlement, a short day's distance from
the latter, has the unique distinction of being situated on
a small river, which, making its origin here, runs for a
few miles south-west before disappearing in the desert.
It is called the Sonoita River and in reality originates far
from there in Arizona, near Cajilon, north of the Quijotoa
Range, gathering also w7ater from the Santa Rosa valley
and the west side of the Baboquivari Range. These nearly
always dry watercourses unite and pass La Nariz where,
after making a turn, the "river" takes a curious short
course through hard rock without sand and popularly
called a barranco, perhaps ten feet deep and less than
double that wide. From there to Sonoita the casual ob-
server would probably remain ignorant of the greater part
of its course until it plunges forth from underneath an
accumulation of gravelly debris as a small sparkling
stream, twelve feet wide and one foot deep, which pro-
duces a veritable oasis in the desert. In this stream are
found two species of the small fish popularly called min-
nows. One, algansea tincella, which is six inches long, is
common in the lakes about the City of Mexico and other

174

THE FIRST WHITES IN SONOITA 175

waters of that republic. The other, cyprinodon macu-
larius, which grows only to a length of two and a half
inches, is common in the waters of the desert from
Nevada to Sonora.

The first white man to arrive here was the enterprising
Jesuit, Father Kino, in the year 1698. A mission was,
however, not established here until about fifty years later,
and it lasted but a short time, as it was destroyed during
the Pima revolt, 1751. The present inhabitants of Sono-
ita know little or nothing about this. Ruins of the small
church may be observed on approaching Sonoita from the
east, in the shape of two low, rather insignificant, mounds,
the smaller of which lies a short distance to the north of
the other. Mr. M. G. Levy, of Ajo, Arizona, conceived
the idea that gold might have been stored here, which the
priests in early times could easily have secured from the
Indians who then knew nothing of its value. He secured
permission to excavate at the site in 1907. The founda-
tions were partly cleared, showing thick walls made from
adobe. The floor was of hard, whitish earth. Besides a
few skeletons, one of them with an abundance of blond
hair, the only thing brought to light was a small stone disk
which had three colors and which was of unknown use.
An old Indian woman, who lives on the American side of
the boundary line, declares that the cattle and horses which
she owns have descended from those that the Papagoes
took from the monks. According to Papago tradition,
the Indians killed the priest or priests, burned the church
and the convent, and took possession of what was of
value to them, chief of which were, of course, the domestic

176 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

animals. This is evidently in accordance with facts, and
among the ruined walls the occurrence of coal is noticeable.

The present Mexican settlement of Sonoita dates
only from the middle of the last century, about the time
of the discovery of gold in California, the first settlers
having come from Zofii. There are over a hundred Mexi-
cans all told in the oasis to-day, making an easy living by
irrigating their patches of field,, though little is sold, for
there is no market for their products. Mineral salts, which
are included in the Spanish word salitre, occur at certain
places, giving the agriculturist some trouble; its chief
constituent is evidently carbonate of soda. Nevertheless
the range of food plants grown here, which includes
wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, and onions, though raised on
a small scale, is wide. Lima trees give excellent fruit as
also do granadas, peach, and fig trees. Maize and beans
yield two crops a year, and peas, peanuts, and tomatoes
propagate themselves without being planted ; sugar-cane,
grapes, melons, and sweet potatoes do well, and dates
ripen. Alfalfa is also raised. A specialty of the place is
honey which is abundant and cheap; it is often used in-
stead of sugar, and a kind of dulce is made from it.

A considerable number of Indians — not quite a hun-
dred all told — who also have nice fields and water enough
for irrigation, live about a mile lower down. They are
contented and generally hold their own with the Mexi-
cans. With many of the Indian children it was noticeable
that the four upper front teeth were chocolate-colored, no
doubt on account of the water. It appears that the
coloring does not take place until the second teeth come.

A CHARMING PLACE 177

Some of the Mexican children were disfigured in the
same way.

On my first day spent here, toward the end of Novem-
ber, a pleasantly warm, gentle breeze blew from the south-
west, and there was a delightful southern atmosphere,
full of sunshine, peace, and contentment, about the place.
I had occasion to know Sonoita well, for it became in a
way my head-quarters for half a year, while making
expeditions into the surrounding district and westward as
far as the Colorado River. The inhabitants are kind, and
theft and murder are unknown; this is largely character-
istic of the entire north-western corner of Sonora, called
the District of Altar. The towns of Altar and Caborca
are reputed also to be remarkably free from bad men.
Mexican authority in Sonoita is represented by a comisario,
who settles any dispute that may arise. He also marries
people, for there is no priest living west or south of far-
away Altar.

A young comisario, recently arrived, arrested people
twice for ridiculous offences; in one of them, for instance,
a man would not allow his fifteen or sixteen year old
daughter to marry. There is evidently little need of his ac-
tivities and he probably felt that he had to do something
to assert his authority. Sonoita does not boast of any
prison, so any one who may be arrested has to be tied to
a mezquite tree. When people are ill, they are brought
to the centre of the scattered population; the patient is
received in one of the houses, and the female part of the
population takes turns in caring for him or her, even
watching during the night. Many kinds of native reme-

i;8 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

dies are used and food is prepared. On one occasion
voluntary subscriptions were made to defray expenses. I
was not asked to contribute, though my advice in regard
to the disease was sought. It was a sad case of insanity
which grew worse instead of better, so people finally lost
their interest in what appeared to them a hopeless con-
dition. On another occasion, when a poor Papago girl
was in extreme distress, the house where she had been
taken was for several days filled with sympathetic women
solicitous for her health.

Japanese have been known, though rarely, to start
from Sonoita westward through the desert, bound, proba-
bly, for the Colorado River. The people of Sonoita were
enthusiastic in describing the pluck of these travellers;
without blankets and with few provisions they walked
better than horses, carrying water in a Standard Oil can
which hung from a pole, the ends of which rested on the
shoulders of two men. When asking for information
about the right way, they showed much keenness in under-
standing the right directions.

My camp was pitched near the house of Sr. Isauro
Quiroz, the most important citizen of Sonoita and a man
of some reading. Both he and his family delighted in
showing me hospitality and attentions; he accompanied
me to the place in which I was most interested here, the
beginning of the Sonoita River. Stone artifacts had been
found there many feet below the surface. The river has
receded of late years and brought about some changes
in the landscape. Formerly there existed a series of
cienegas (swamps) immediately above the rise of the river,

CHANGES IN SONOITA RIVER 179

extending back for about three miles. They were in
reality the river itself which, during its capricious sub-
terranean course, found itself obstructed at Sonoita and
spread out into swamps. The water filtered through at
one place and ran in a narrow channel which it cut
through the gravelly, clayish deposit, thus forming the
beginning of the river which flows on after this without
embankments.

During the night of August 6, 1891, after a heavy rain,
the water carried off a hard barrier, about twenty meters
wide, which had been retaining the swamps, and widened
the channel, making it recede about a kilometer. The
swamps dried up in three years, but the surface is under-
mined in places and a man and his horse are said to have
inadvertently fallen into a cavity caused by the former
action of the water. Where there had been before only a
llano, a forest of mezquite trees sprang up, which is visible
to any one who enters Sonoita from the east. An inter-
esting circumstance in the receding of the river and the
widening of its channel is that it brought to light aboriginal
artifacts, mostly consisting in metates (grinding stones)
and their attendant rubbing stones. Also many sea-shells
were found there, which were used as ornaments by the
primitive people.

I found this channel to be about two hundred and fifty
feet broad and from eighteen to twenty feet deep. The
objects that had been discovered here could no longer be
accounted for, one metate only was left and it was still
lying at the bottom. According to the location of the
find, as pointed out to me by Sr. Quiroz, the artifacts must

180 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

have been about twenty feet below the surface. I found a
metate of a light-colored stone imbedded in the embank-
ment twelve feet below the surface, and also took along
the other one that was lying at the bottom of the channel.
Neither of them is quite perfect; they have been much
used, but do not differ materially from those seen among
the Indians of to-day. In a climate as dry as this, where
rain-water has little chance, except perhaps in the month
of August, of bringing about changes by removing and
depositing the earth, it would seem as if thousands of
years would be needed to build up a stratum of such
thickness and extent, and one is led to the deduction that
the climate was formerly less dry than at present.

From the Indians and Mexicans of Sonoita I gathered
several ancient stone artifacts such as axes, lance and
arrow points, which undoubtedly belonged to predecessors
of the Papago, having the same general character as the
rest of the prehistoric remains found in the Papagueria
and already alluded to. The Indians of the present day
know nothing about them, but the magic qualities attrib-
uted to them are used for healing purposes. To this end
the lance or arrow points are left in water, which after-
ward is taken internally and applied externally, while the
medicine-man waves the stone object over the patient,
holding it by a string attached to it, and at the same
time he blows his breath over the sick man repeatedly.

On Friday evening, November 26, I saw for the first
time a lunar rainbow. At six o'clock we had a light
shower of rain, which soon ceased. The moon, which
would be full the following day, shone and the sky above

AGUA DtTLCE, A REAPPEARANCE OF SONOITA RlVER

:?V^^i@iJKS»5S

■M*

. W 1

The channel at the beginning of Sonoita River

RAINBOW OF THE MOON 181

us was clear, but moderate winds from the south brought
fine douches of rain which would often stop and then
recommence, seemingly more laden with moisture each
time. The south-west remained cloudy and dark, and
on the western sky there appeared a large and very dis-
tinct arc, caused by the moon. It was very light in color,
at first sight appearing almost white, but a more careful
examination revealed colors. At its first appearance it
was absolutely perfect, and I tried a quick photograph
of it. It seemed to be about thirty degrees above the
horizon and included one-fifth of it. During the half
hour it was seen, it faded away several times, but for many
moments it was very distinct, and once the northern end
of the arc was quite rich in colors — even astonishingly so.
The red formed the exterior ring of the rainbow. The
curve was not an arc of a circle but a parabola. On
account of the light showers that came and went all the
time, I could not keep the camera outside, and every time
I went into my tent to get it, the arc would be faint when
I came out again. The Mexican engineers, whose camp
I had again encountered here, had also never seen a lunar
arc before. One of them, as he came riding back from
the east at dusk, had observed that the moon was covered
by a cloud and that as soon as it cleared away the rain-
bow appeared. At first he saw only the left, lower part
of the arc. It appeared to him as being thirty degrees or
perhaps thirty-five degrees above the horizon and having
a width of one-quarter of the horizon.

I was desirous of starting on an expedition to explore
the Pinacate region and the desert west of there as far as

i82 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

the Colorado River. The preparations, however, had to
proceed slowly, because men and animals could only be
procured with difficulty, and caution in the selection,
especially of the men, was imperative. It became nec-
essary for my purpose to return to Quitovac from where
I made a visit to San Antonio, formerly a gold mine,
said to have been discovered in 1831 by a Papago
Indian. In the same year the placer mines of Quitovac
were found, and at about the same time also those of
Sonoita.

In the western part of the District of Altar active
mining of gold, since the recent and probably temporary
abandonment of the Sierra Pinta and Juarez mines, is
not pursued to any great extent. As for the gold placer
mines found in that part of the country, silence, with very
few exceptions, reigns over them. The District of Altar
is richly mineralized and there is no reason that the western
part should be less so. Sixty-one years ago J. F. Velasco,
who represented government authority in the gold-fields,
writes: "Suffice it to say that from the River Fuerte
de Montes Claros, which is the dividing line between this
Department and that of Sinaloa, to the Gila River in the
north, in the north-west to the Colorado River, and in the
east to the Sierra Madre, there is not a town or a ranch
which has not at least one vein of gold, silver, lead,
or copper. Almost the same is true of the placers,
although not so generally." Of the placer mines of
Cieneguilla, discovered in 1779, he relates that "on the
surface gold was gathered in the same way that fowls
pick up corn."

PAPAGO GOLD MINERS 183

The surface merely of the different placers has been
exhausted, and there is no doubt that in the district a con-
siderable extent of country is left which will some day be
scientifically exploited. The gold mines are of the bo-
nanza type and, although the pockets are remarkably rich,
I feel incompetent to give an opinion as to whether really
great mines would be found there. The western desert
country of Altar has been little explored by the prospector,
and it would not be advisable to venture a prophecy at
this time.

Almost any day primitive mining by the Papago may
be observed in the vicinity of Quitovac, and it is carried
on mostly by women. The auriferous gravel, which is
often cemented together so as to be quite hard, is first
crushed ; the gold is next separated without water by the
skilled manipulation of the wooden gold pan, the batea,
the operator lifting it above his head and letting its con-
tents fall on an extended mat or skin. Having in this
way separated the coarser particles, he treats the rest in
the batea as if he were operating with water. The Ind-
ians have also the ordinary "dry washing" machines which
came originally from Hungary in 1851 and which may
be seen in operation on those placers that are still being
worked in the District of Altar.

The Papago before the advent of the Spaniard did
not know the use of gold and has no name for it other
than bio, the native rendering of the Spanish oro. He is
in our day, however, a keen miner and prospector when-
ever he chooses to go in for mining pursuits. Up to late
years the Papagoes brought nuggets of gold to Tucson,

184 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

Arizona, in exchange for commodities, and there is little
doubt that a few of them know of hidden values, but
they are reluctant to tell any outsider of such things,
showing more or less the almost universal belief of Mexi-
can Indians that if they divulge mineral secrets they will
die. One Indian is reputed to know of a wonderful
silver mine, and although an American married his daugh-
ter, according to rumor in order to gain knowledge of
the mine, his mouth still remains as closed as that of a
freemason.

In connection with the gold mining it may be of interest
to note the prevalence of hydrophobia around the gold-
fields of that Western country; according to all accounts, it
once made considerable havoc among dogs, cattle, and don-
keys, and has remained endemic in certain wild animals,
as the coyote, the gray fox, and the small striped skunk.
The population is now scarce and scattered, but instances
of deaths from hydrophobia have been known in more
recent times, though no case came under my immediate
observation. Many stories are being told of how coyotes
and wild foxes occasionally have bitten people or cattle.
Where rabies is so common, one may be certain that a
remedy has also been found, and especially in a country
like Mexico with countless medicinal herbs and the strong
inclination of the natives toward their use. On the Al-
tar River, in Oquitoa, Altar, and, above all, in Pitiquito,
live curanderos, who make a specialty of curing rabies,
the secret being confined mainly to one family. In the
western part of the Altar District it is the Indians who are
supposed to know the secret of curing this disease, and

Salt loads, recently discharged. Papago pack-saddles in the centre.

Papago woman "dry washing" gold near Quitovac

A LONG SUNRISE 185

Mexicans when bitten go to them and are, according to
their own statements, cured. Having been a long time
among the Papago, the secret of the Indians was confided
to me, and I have reason to think that the remedy, which
is extremely simple, may be of value. On some future
occasion I shall make a communication on the subject in
a scientific journal. Hydrophobia is called in Papago
notakik, derived from notak, crazy, mad.

At Quitovac, on Thursday morning, December 9, sun-
shine was observed twenty-seven minutes before sunrise.
It was accompanied by an intense glow in the east, tana-
ger red and orange in color, enveloping the nimbus and
other clouds which floated over the horizon, though leav-
ing a clear space of ten or twelve degrees above the latter.
There was a fringe of very small clouds hanging down
from the large ones which resembled falling rain. To-
ward the west and in other directions the horizon was
fairly clear, but the sky was rather overcast and I was
awakened by a few drops of rain falling on my tent.

The unusual glow attracted my attention. It was
then 6.25 a. m., and I found the hill-tops all in sunshine,
just as if the sun were rising. The light on the summits,
first rose and then white, gradually crept down on the llano
and shone in my tent ten minutes later, somewhat faintly,
to be sure, but absolutely distinct. It slowly disappeared
except on the very tops of the low ranges. By degrees
also the intense reddish light in the east grew orange and
fainter, while the clear space little by little became covered
with stratus clouds, except close to the horizon, above
which the sun began to appear at 6.52 and then soon disap-

186 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

peared behind the clouds. The color was at this time
very faint. The phenomenon attracted attention even
among the few Mexicans living here, one of them who
rose at daybreak noticing unusual colors.

CHAPTER XII

AREAS OF VEGETATION— FITTING OUT AN EXPEDITION UNDER
DIFFICULTIES— AN OLD MEDICINE-MAN ENROLLED AS A MEM-
BER—GUADALUPE

After having secured several good animals for my in-
tended expedition, and also engaged the services of a
middle-aged useful Indian called Guadalupe, as well as
his three donkeys, I returned to Sonoita. This time the
whole outfit was sent on to Temporales, while I, accom-
panied by Guadalupe, made a slight detour to see a cave
in the Sierra de Cubabi, which was said to contain pic-
tographs. Southward from the south-east point of this
sierra runs the almost invisible divide which separates
the waters that run to Quito vac and Sonoita. In travel-
ling northward from Quitovac toward this low divide it is
striking to see how much higher the detritus, that runs
down from the mountains in a slanting, straight surface
line, is on the west side of the abra than on the east side.
The cave was shallow and small and the drawings, well
pecked on the inner wall, represented mainly whirlwind
designs. A wagon road passes near by, following the base
of the sierra ; it is heavy, but shortens the distance some
fifteen miles between Quitovac and Sonoita and is, there-
fore, preferable for those who travel with light loads.

From here we cut across the bush, to use an Australian

expression, and proceeding northward direct for the Tem-

is7

188 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

porales, across the broad valley between Sierra de Cubabi
and Sierra de Santa Rosa, here more than twelve miles
wide, I was able to get an instructive idea of the distri-
bution of vegetation. We first passed through a forest of
sahuaro that thrives on the gravelly detritus along the
bases of the nude sierras. Large clusters of choyas were
prominent in the landscape, and became more conspicu-
ous as we advanced, especially the very spiny kind (opuntia
fulgida). Graceful and rounded in shape and densely
covered with long white and shining spines, these extraor-
dinary cacti presented a weird but attractive sight in the
late afternoon sun. My dog experienced much trouble
from the loose spiny joints that were lying about and
which it was impossible for him to avoid. The formidable
spines would cling to his feet and, as is the manner of dogs
of that country, he would bravely set to work to bite them
off, filling his bleeding mouth with the easily detached
spines. We had to stop again and again to help him.

In the basins or flat depressions of the cactus region
grass was growing and here is the home of the mule-deer.
The useful barrel cactus was seen to have fruit, yellow in
color and ripe, growing on top of the plant in two con-
centric circles, like small, upright bananas. These as well
as the fruit of the choya, also in season now, the middle
of December, are eaten by the Papago. Both kinds are
first boiled; they are acid, but agreeable to the Indian
palate. We followed the detritus for seven miles, descend-
ing almost imperceptibly toward the middle of the valley.

Next we passed into the greasewood region, where the
mule-deer does not appear, and soon we reached the fertile

PREPARATIONS FOR AN EXPEDITION 189

alluvial plains along the more or less visible river-course
of the middle valley, where mezquite and palo fierro trees
may be seen here and there. As one turns and travels
westward to Sonoita, there may be observed on either side
the slope of detritus which presents a band of bright green
coloring, due to the forest of sahuaro along the bases of
the weather-worn mountain ranges. Dark green with a
tinge of yellow, betraying the presence of the greasewood,
is the predominant color in the rest of the valley.-

The day after my return to Sonoita, December 18, the
sun was hidden from view during the entire day. It had
quite a depressing effect; the weather was cold and
gloomy, and in the night the thermometer registered
1 90 F., the lowest temperature that I had as yet recorded.
During the winter in this region there are many cloudy
days, though usually the sun comes out warm and pleasant
in the afternoon. Light snowfalls on the tops of the higher
mountain ranges were afterward reported; according to
trustworthy authority, in 1899 the snow was even four or
five inches deep.

The essential part of my outfit, including certain pro-
visions, had already been provided for in the United States
and Hermosillo, but as I always depend largely upon the
products of the country in which I travel, there were many
things needed before I could start from Sonoita. It is
not a good place for fitting out an expedition; one cannot
even depend upon getting barrels in which to carry water
on the trip. Provisions are scarce, except honey and that
at times gives out; beef, so indispensable a part of the
Mexican diet, may occasionally be bought, and usually

190 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

excellent lard of native manufacture may be procured, for
among Mexicans a hog is killed only for the sake of the
lard to be obtained from it. Two of the antiquated mills
operated by donkeys were set in motion to supply us with
flour, the most necessary part of all provisions, and later
on I was thankful that the ordinary white flour was not
procurable.

To be sure it took a couple of days or more for the
patient burros to turn out a quantity large enough with
which to make a start, but waiting for this flour was worth
while; though the Mexicans sift out the chaff, they nat-
urally do not succeed in separating more than half of it
by their primitive methods, and the freshly ground flour,
slightly brownish in color, baked into the Mexican tor-
tillas has a flavor that defies description. The flour that
the Indian woman grinds on her metate, the whole wheat,
shell and all, ground as fine as it is possible for her to do
it, is still better. If she is willing to make this into tor-
tillas and toast them, the traveller will have the most de-
licious bread he has ever tasted. I have become a convert
to the tortilla, provided it is not served in a soft state as is
usually the case; even those made from the white man's
flour, as thin and large as a medium-sized newspaper, are
good when afterward toasted on the coals as they should
be, without any burnt or brown spots. In the making of
dishes au naturel, Indian and Mexican women have no
peers.

The side and bottom of a Standard Oil can was
straightened out to serve as our baking tray. At one end
a hole was made and a loop of wire attached by which this

PROVISIONS 191

extremely useful contrivance could hang from any con-
venient place in the packing outfit. The ordinary comal,
made of earthen-ware, is of course useless for travel, and a
so-called Dutch oven is altogether too heavy and cumber-
some, besides being of little use. I was so pleased with
this extemporized utensil that I had another made, and
both served well for many months, providing us with the
luxury of freshly made, crisp tortillas.

A fairly large supply of preserved goods of the kind
used by travellers had in due time arrived. In that dry,
warm climate, California canned fruit of the best brand
furnishes a rich and useful relish. On an expedition like
this, where the distances between water are great, the out-
fit should be movable and convenient, and heavy things
are to be avoided. Bacon is a necessary adjunct for the
preparation of game to be killed and for other reasons,
and dried vegetables of various kinds must not be omitted.
Small packages of pressed figs, dates, or other fruit, sold
at five cents each in New York, as also shelled nuts, were
found extremely useful to take along in the saddle pouch
when obliged to travel without stopping to prepare food.
Wood for making fires is often scarce, especially on the
coast, but does not need to be provided in advance.

As for the animals to be used on the expedition, I
had gradually been able to acquire the necessary supply
of mules and horses. The Indians were persuaded to
leave their comfortable huts in those chilly, windy days
to look for their burros (donkeys) which were running on
pasture in the surrounding wilds and some of these were
bought. The Mexicans who were to accompany me

192 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

furnished their own horses. Great difficulty was experi-
enced in regard to pack-saddles, and a quantity of bur-
lap had to be bought to supply the need of saddle-cloths,
especially for the burros, and, because it was not possible
to secure material enough for this purpose, Sr. Quiroz and
I contributed some old clothes which answered very well.

Pinacate, an extensive field of volcanic upheaval, to
the south-west of Sonoita was the immediate object of our
journey, and Alberto was to bring his wagon that far in
order to furnish transportation for a Papago medicine-man
called Quelele (carrion hawk), who was too old to ride on
horseback. As he was born among the sand dunes and
knew well the Pinacate region, which plays an important
part in the tribe's traditions, I was glad of the associations
that his presence with us would bring. It was a difficult
matter, however, to induce the old man to participate in
the venture, although on my first visit to Sonoita he had
consented to show me Elder Brother's house, as he ex-
pressed it; in Pinacate is found one of the principal resi-
dences of this deity, a sacred cave to which the younger
generation of the tribe pays little or no attention. In
spite of his having left Pinacate many years ago, and as-
sociating much with Mexicans, he was a firm believer in the
ancient regime, and to him it was a fact that their Creator
lived there.

When I saw the old man again, on my second visit to
Sonoita, he had thought my proposition over thoroughly
and he feared to go with us; the Mexicans who accom-
panied me might afterward show the cave to others, or
Mexicans might follow our tracks later and take away

OBJECTIONS OVERCOME 193

the things sacrificed there. Some evil might befall us
such as an illness, or a strong wind might carry us down
into the abysses; then a prospector had once availed him-
self of his services without paying him. Having been
reassured upon all these points, he finally said that on one
condition only would he go with me, namely, that on
arriving we should spend one night in singing. This was
readily agreed to; Clemente, my interpreter, knew how to
sing several Indian songs, and I also knew two, and in
addition in my camp there was Guadalupe, the Papago,

who sang very well.

He then declared it necessary to bring certain sacrificial
offerings to deposit in the cave, which it was incumbent
upon me to procure. The articles could be bought from
the Indians of Sonoita, except blue glass beads, which
were acquired through the kindness of his wife. She
sold us a piece of a beautiful large necklace which she
wore when she went to the annual feast of Quitovac.

One difficulty more had to be overcome, the planting
of his wheat, for which he desired two days, I paying a
man to do the work. When I rode back to my camp late
in the evening I felt that I had accomplished something
toward the success of my coming expedition; but still I
could not be absolutely sure of him until I had him in
the wagon, and it was pleasing to me two days later to re-
ceive his assurance that he was now ready for the journey,
"if the sun was shining." For a man nearly eighty, even
though an Indian, it was not an unreasonable demand, as
the weather was surprisingly chilly and so damp that it
interfered with the packing of my boxes. On Friday,

i94 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

December 24, the ground was as wet as if it had been
raining; light mist rested on the hills around, and the sun
arose in fog which completely enveloped our camp, frost
appearing on the ground, but the following day, Christ-
mas, the temperature changed and the flies stung as if
we had been in the wet season.

"It is the mile that begins at the door of one's house
that is the most difficult of the journey to accomplish," says
a Norwegian proverb, and the truth of it was certainly
brought home to me as I made resolute struggles during
the day to start with Mexicans and Indians who yet did
not know each other or the sundry animals, burros, mules,
and horses they were packing. To complicate matters,
Guadalupe, the Papago, got drunk; I decided to move
at any cost, and he managed to sit on his burro, though
swaying to and fro. Knowing how valuable he would
become away from the alluring and demoralizing influence
of mescal, I was patient with him. We did not travel far-
ther than to the Indian village where we made camp on
the dancing place of the Indians in front of Quelele's
house. The pleasant little plain was on a slight elevation,
faultlessly level and scrupulously clean. Under the jacal
that furnishes shade for the principal performers during
the ceremonies of the feast, my men spread out their beds.
The night was clear and beautiful, the air fresh, and I felt
satisfaction in having overcome such trying circumstances
and in the fact that I was actually on my way. My party-
consisted of three Mexicans and three Indians; a Mexican
who was to act as guide from Pinacate to the Colorado
River was to join us three weeks later at Pinacate.

A STRONG CONSTITUTION 195

Guadalupe suffered much that night under the reaction
from the awful stuff sold as mescal and in reality wood
alcohol and water. But with all his deplorable failing
as regards strong drink, he was much of a man, and the
next morning found him as active at his work as any one
else. From now on he was for many months my valued
companion in the desert. He was an excellent packer,
besides being a good cook; what he knew he had picked
up from the Mexicans, but he was more conscientious and
careful than most of them. He knew what to do and did
it without orders; a renowned tracker, he was also fond
of shooting, spoke Spanish besides Papago, and was
faithful, courteous, and quiet, and altogether an ideal man
to camp with. Still this same man, when he came into
Sonoita or Quitovac, where the white man's fire-water
could be procured, would drink like a fish, selling his
animals and belongings to gratify his craving. Only his
marvellous constitution kept him alive, many Indians hav-
ing been known to die from the dreadful alcohol sold them.

CHAPTER XIII

THE OLD CABORCA-YUMA TRAIL— QUITOVAQUITA, THE PLACE
OF SMALL SPRINGS— OLD CAMPING PLACES— PINACATE AND
LEGENDS CONNECTED WITH IT— DISCOVERY OF WATER—
OUR FIRST MOUNTAIN-SHEEP— VISIT TO A SACRED CAVE-
ASCENT OF THE PEAK— WINTER WEATHER— CRATER ELE-
GANTE—TRAVEL AT NIGHT

Quelele, the old Indian, joined us in the morning
as we started on our journey westward. From Sonoita
to Agua Dulce, a day's journey, we were on the old
trail which, passing Sonoita, connects Caborca with
Yuma. It follows at first more or less closely the So-
noita River which, after an eight-mile course, ceases to
exist except as a dry river-bed with a growth of mez-
quites at either side and streams of running water ap-
pearing at intervals, the last time at Agua Dulce. This
old camino real was the only means of communication
between Sonora and California in the days before the
Southern Pacific Railroad was built. As the country
traversed is fairly level, the track is passable for wagons.
After leaving Sonoita the great difficulty was, of course,
water; the custom of carrying this in barrels is of late
date, the travellers, mostly Mexicans, using gourds (bules)
for the purpose, which is very precarious on account of
their limited capacity and fragility. Certain of the

camps of the trail, such as Agua Dulce, Tinaja del Tule

196

A NOTABLE TRAIL 197

and Tinajas Altas, are renowned in the pioneer history of
the district. Here water usually could be depended upon,
being stored after showers in natural cavities of the rock,
but between Sonoita River and Yuma there is no running
water for one hundred and thirty- five miles; when the pool
at Tule gave out, there would be sixty miles to cover with-
out water. But for the help of the Papago Indians,
who knew where water was, it would have been impos-
sible in those days to have established the trail, in the
following of which, moreover, hundreds of people later
died from thirst. Many recent authorities speak of this
part of the trail as the Camino del Diablo, but nobody
in Sonoita knows it under that name, and possibly
there may be some confusion arising from the name of
the small canon between low ranges which the trail
passes near the Tule well, called Cajon del Diablo.

The Jesuit fathers were probably the first white men to
pass over the trail in the seventeenth century, and Father
Kino has left us a map of it. There is no evidence to show
that they ever traversed the country south of it, at least
west of Sonoita. Bancroft's map of Melchior Diaz's sup-
posed route is absurd to one who knows the region in ques-
tion. Among Mexicans there is a persistent rumor of an
abandoned mission somewhere in the sand-dune country
east of the Colorado River, showing foundations of walls
near a spring with running water among the sand dunes,
and an old smelter connected with it. Its location usually
is placed near the coast south of Tinajas Altas. A man
from that camp, who was looking for his horses, is
said to have come across these ruins near the Cabeza

1 98 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

Prieta Range, but the lower part of the Sonoita River is
assumed to be the locality by others. A Mexican from
Yuma, according to report, searched for it with persever-
ance for several winters. Although I travelled for many
months in those regions, I saw or heard nothing to sub-
stantiate a belief in the lost mission with its supposed
treasures buried by the crafty monks.

I made a halt of one day at Quitovaquita, a small
Indian settlement just within the United States boun-
dary, in order to try to procure as member of my party
a Papago medicine-man who lives here. He is known
under different names, as Cara Colorada (Red Face, a
translation of his native name), El Doctor Pancho, or
simply Pancho, and enjoys considerable reputation in
his profession. He is one of the few surviving sand
people (arenenos) who once inhabited the dune country
over which my explorations would lead. It was es-
pecially desirable to have him as guide through that
somewhat difficult region from the mouth of the Col-
orado River eastward along the upper part of the Gulf
of California, and no Mexican had been found who
knew that country.

Quitovaquita owes its native name, "Small Springs,"
to several diminutive springs with excellent water which
are found there, and which in futile attempts at cattle
raising and mining have been deflected into a dam,
now utilized solely by Indians. The tiny stream, fed by
the springs, carries beautiful, limpid water amid banks
white with mineral salts; the fresh green weeds at the
bottom are also refreshing to behold. When heavy

THE VALUE OF PLUMES 199

showers fall, connection is made with the Sonoita River,
and the same minnows which were seen there were
splashing in the streamlet up to its very sources. The
dam, of only moderate size, made a charming impres-
sion with the surrounding trees and bushes here and
there reflected in it. There were a few dark gray and
black water hens here, one white heron and some ducks,
and at dusk seven fine-looking geese swooped down into
the pond, evidently intending to spend the night there.

It was very disappointing to have the old medicine-
man prevented from joining us on account of the pro-
tracted illness of his daughter, who needed his care and
presence. I interviewed him, however, as long as his
patience would permit, and although his knowledge and
horizon were limited, he gave accurate information and
was sincere in his beliefs. He was also willing to sell
me eagle plumes which I needed for my visit to the
sacred cave in Pinacate, bringing me for selection a
number of large wing feathers as well as some small
ones from underneath the wing. Our own medicine-
man, who had to be consulted on this question, said that
the small ones would do very well. One dollar as the
price of four tiny feathers, though they came from an
eagle, and had to the Papago much religious value,
seemed rather excessive, but I paid it on learning that
four of the big ones were worth a horse, or sixteen dol-
lars.

The old camping place, Agua Dulce, which we
passed the following day, has abundant and good water
always flowing, for a short distance, in the Sonoita

zoo NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

river-bed. There used to be a Mexican ranch here
which has been abandoned, the surrounding country-
being entirely given up to wild donkeys, which thrive
here, and in the dry season make such a noise at night
as to prevent any possibility of sleep. Their head-
quarters are at this pleasant little stream, and between
here and Quitovac there must be about three thousand
of these animals which are constantly multiplying. They
are very fat and attempts have been made to manu-
facture soap from their fat, an article which is always
expensive in Mexico. I was informed that the late
Cipriano Ortega, who established the now deserted
Hacienda de Santo Domingo, once shot one hundred of
these burros which supplied soap to the value of two
thousand dollars Mexican currency. Some of them
yielded one hundred and twenty-five pounds of fat, and
others only fifty. There are many wild burros also in
the District of Magdalena. The printer in Altar told
me that donkey fat is the best for typographical use.

At Agua Dulce we left the old Yuma trail, proceed-
ing now in the direction of Pinacate, first to Agua Sa-
lada, five miles farther, and the-n to Los Pozitos. At
both localities water may be found by digging in the
river-bed, though the mineral salts, comprised by the
Mexicans in the word salitre, often cover its banks like
a thin layer of snow. We camped a little beyond, not
far from a sand dune branch that extends from the
coast as far as Agua Salada. The water at Los Pozi-
tos, though abundant and found wherever one digs in
the sand, is somewhat brackish and slightly muddy.

Approaching storm. View from Pinacate top, looking south, at sunset, January 3

PlNACATE FROM THE EAST. COMMENCEMENT OF THE LAVA FLOW. To THE RIGHT, MY CAMP

Belt of great sand-hills south of Pinacate

Photographed at seven miles distance from the north

FIRST VIEW OF PINACATE 201

The animals declined to drink and its taste was not
pleasant, but our experience in the desert along the
coast later taught us to look upon this kind of water
supply as almost nectar. In the evening, which was
December 28, we had light breezes from the south-west,
then from the east and finally from the north, during a
period of two hours, the weather changing from clear to
cloudy and back again two or three times. Hardly did
I take a note of the weather before there was a change.

A horse that strayed away during the night delayed
our departure until about eleven o'clock. We soon
emerged from the small hills that surrounded our camp
and entered a fine llano with an inspiring view of the
volcanic upheaval called Pinacate toward the south-west.
Very noticeable are the two cone-shaped peaks, Los Picos
del Pinacate, which rise from the central part. They
are visible at a great distance, and from our point of
view appeared to be side by side, the one to the left
being the nearer and slightly lower. The vast llano,
covered with sombre yellowish-green greasewood bushes
sparsely interspersed with chamiso, appeared as flat as a
billiard table. Greasewoods formed the horizon toward
the south-east between Sierra del Pozo on the left hand
and Sierra de San Francisco on the right. The soil
looked surprisingly rich, and the Mexicans all agreed
that it would be good for agriculture.

The Papago name for Pinacate is Tjuktoak, "Black
(tjuk) Mountain (toak)" The Mexican name is derived
from the prevalence here of a large black beetle called
pinacate, some species of eleodes, which raise the hinder

202 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

parts of their bodies in a peculiar manner when interfered
with. The locality is famous in the legends of the Papago
as being the mountain where Iitoi,or Elder Brother, landed
after the deluge. He knew, so tradition goes, that the
world was going to be flooded, and he saved himself in a
cask made from greasewood "gum" with a cover of the
same material. He also taught the coyote how to save
himself in a reed. He advised the pinacate to go down
into the ground and the vulture to rise high up in the sky.
Elder Brother saw how water came forth from the tops
of the mountains, and when it was rising he entered his
cask which floated four times around the world, and
then he landed at Pinacate and was very thin after the
long voyage. The coyote also drifted four times around
the world, and was the next to effect a landing, on a range
without passes, near the Gila River. The ground was
wet and very muddy, so Iitoi put up four ceremonial
sticks to drain the country. He and the coyote met
the pinacate and they all walked together. The ground
was so wet that they could not sit down, so they dug a
hole deep down, where they found the soil to be less
moist. Then they created the red ants which a little
deeper down found dry earth which they brought to the
surface for the three to sit on. From the presence of
this deluge legend among the natives of the arid coun-
try, one might, not without reason, deduce an argument
for a change of climate since the days when the legend
originated.

Another legend of Pinacate refers to one of the vol-
canic eruptions:

EXTINCT VOLCANOES 203

Iitoi lived in Baboquivari before he came to Pinacate.
At that time there were many people in Pinacate. The
mountains were very high then, and the sun used to
set soon after it had risen, so the days were very short.
He saw that this did not suit the people, and he decided
to lower the mountains. He built two fires, where the
two peaks are found to-day, making fire by drilling one
stick into another one. The wind blew the ashes about
to all parts and made the mountains lower, covering the
country so as to look as seen to-day. After that the people
lived contented, and there was not so much shade from
the west.

We approached the great dark looking mass of extinct
volcanoes much sooner than I had expected. Small iso-
lated volcanoes were observed on the plain below and
near the main mass toward the north-west; one which
was soon left behind is light in color, almost pinkish,
hence its name Cerro Colorado, with deep furrows from
the top down and with an air of recent formation about it.
Our old guide, though he had left the Pinacate region
forty odd years ago, pointed out with no uncertainty the
place where the Indian trail ran that would take us to the
cave. At a considerable distance away there is visible
about half-way up the mountain side an abrupt declivity
of a descending ridge, looking something like a land-
slide. Below that declivity he said that water would be
found, and here our camp was to be. As soon as we ar-
rived at the lava flow the track was very hard to follow.
Sometimes we crossed small arroyos among the low ridges
with a vegetation consisting mainly of palo verde, palo

2o4 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

fierro, and coarse grass. The wagon could only proceed
with difficulty, and finally at dusk we made camp near an
arroyo where there was plenty of good grass for our ani-
mals, but no water.

The next day we set out to search for water, following
the crooked dry water-courses that ran down from the
mountains. As we ascended I enjoyed the fine view toward
the north-east, though the weather was hazy. It must have
rained more here than from where we came, for we found
several of the small arroyos slightly moist and I observed
half a dozen different specimens of flowers in bloom.
After a few miles of ascent, the presence of small birds
singing indicated water somewhere; it was found below
the peculiar declivity of the mountain slope, just as we had
been told, but its appearance was altogether surprising:
four natural dams filled with water, rising one above the
other in the narrow gorge. The largest was fairly accessi-
ble to our animals, but the rest could not be reached by
them. Some of the lava in the neighborhood had quite a
recent look, like cow dung or iron slag in appearance.

This locality used to be one of the favorite haunts of the
sand people. Pieces of broken pottery were strewn on the
ground and small circular rows of medium-sized stones
indicated the camping space of each family. Here they
came to hunt mountain-sheep and to gather the edible
seeds called chia (hyptis) which, when placed in water,
half dissolve into starchy matter and are much relished.
The Papago call the locality "Many Pools," and I named
it Las Tinajas de Emilia for my friend, Miss Emily Beebe,
of Boston. In a country where water is so rare, travellers

DELIGHTFUL CLIMATE 205

hail with delight the sight of such picturesque reservoirs.
From here a trail leads across the mountains west of
the two high peaks to another former important Papago
camp, known among the Mexicans as Tinaja de los Chivos.
At both places the water lasts usually more than a year, a
longer time than at any of the other natural tanks in the
Pinacate region, the high rocks which surround them pre-
venting much evaporation.

The next day, leaving our wagon behind, we moved
up to our new camp, the site for which I selected in an
arroyo three hundred yards below the newly discovered
tinajas. Though somewhat limited in width, the dry
watercourse with its gravelly sand furnished us an at-
tractive camp on a small elevation in its bed. As was
usually the case with these sheltered arroyos among the
lava flows of Pinacate, there were several species of bushes
in flower, such as the salvia with its odorous leaves and
another, called by the Mexicans pinta pan, which had
bright, light-blue flowers. It was the last day of the year,
though the temperature suggested spring. The slender
ocotillos on the small gravelly mesa near by were begin-
ning to bring forth new leaves, and in the evening the
voices of the cicada {la chicharra), to my ear so closely
associated with tropical summers, mingled with that of
the mocking-bird. The balmy air and the peace and calm
of the place were delightful.

But the very next day, Saturday, January 1, and for
many days following, we were made aware of the presence
of winter. A moderate gale sprang up from the south,
gradually turning damp and disagreeably cold, and the

2o6 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

sky became cloudy with occasional light showers. Two
of the Mexicans went out to look for came (meat), which
was sadly needed where so many people, all with ravenous
appetites, were assembled. My principal hunter, whom
we called Charlie because, though a Mexican, he hailed
from Arizona, had been promising us mountain-sheep
for two days. "At this time of the year," he said, "the
sheep are on the tops of the mountains, where the females
are having their young.'* But scaling the tops brought
him no reward and he did not find even one fresh track,
so his compatriots began to make merry with him.

About the middle of the day, however, our attention
was suddenly attracted by the repeated sounds of rifle
shots from above in the mountains. After a while our
hunter appeared on top of a sloping ridge above the camp
and shouted for a burro to carry the quarry to camp, a
message which gave us all much satisfaction. It was a
fine, large ram which the combined efforts of three Mexi-
cans lifted up on the pack animal. In camp it was
hoisted by the hind legs to a branch and carefully skinned
and opened. In the stomach were found the flowerstalks
as well as leaves of the white brittle bush, an herb called
golondrina (euphorbia polycarpa), reddish in color and
blooming at that time, also some of the parasitic plant
that grows on the palo verde and palo fierro. Another
and smaller mountain-sheep was brought in and an es-
sential part of our provisions was successfully settled for
some little time to come.

Quelele had put in readiness all the sacrificial objects
we had brought along for our proposed visit to the sacred

ASCENDING THE PEAK 207

cave, and he had made several improvements in the ar-
rangement of some. As the time drew near for our ex-
cursion, I felt little inclined for the vigil of one night
which had been agreed to, so I asked him if a couple of
hours' devotional exercise might not be sufficient for our
needs. Clemente and Guadalupe, though perfectly will-
ing to comply with the conditions, confessed that they
did not know any Pinacate songs. By this and similar
arguments we succeeded in changing the old man's
mind, and he delighted me when after thoughtful reflec-
tion he declared that it was not necessary to sing now that
we had so many sacrificial things.

I had decided to take Monday, January 3, for the visit,
combining with it an ascent of the one of the two peaks
which was nearer to our camp. In the morning the wind
changed to west and north-west; a chilly, light shower of
rain fell, but when we started from the tinajas for the
ascent at 10.40, the weather was clear, there being only
a few nimbus clouds in sight. As we followed the fairly
distinct Indian trail that winds its way along the ridges
upward, I observed the chuparosa {beloperone calijornica),
the flowers of which are eaten by the Papago, and also
quantities of the well-known plant chia in the small ar-
royos and declivities. One hour's march brought us to the
base of the cinder-covered cone where the cave was situ-
ated. Many years had gone by from the time of Quelele's
last visit to the sacred precinct; his hair was not gray
then and more than one generation had passed since.
He could not at once find the object of our trip and half
an hour was spent in searching for it in the lava flow.

208 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

There was an entrance to a subterranean cave which he
distinctly remembered not to be the right one, and here
we noticed some marks cut in a sahuaro which was grow-
ing near the hole that led downward. Our cave turned
out to be a long natural tunnel, the bottom of which ran
for some twenty feet below the surface. The roof of the
tunnel had fallen in for about ten yards just where the
entrance to the holy place had been, and hence our guide
did not at first recognize it. The passage is believed by
the Indians to run westward underneath the mountains,
then under the sea until it reaches an island where Elder
Brother's wife lives. The god has another though less
important " house " some miles from this cave on the
same side of the mountain, but this I did not visit.

It evidently filled Quelele with dismay that "Iitoi's
house had fallen down." The god himself had caused
this destruction in anger against the people who no
longer came to deposit offerings and do him homage.
Some old, weather-worn sacrificial objects were observed
around a small natural terrace down in the opening, as
well as in the cracks of the rocky sides. Our guide
was too old to descend himself, but he asked the two
Indians, Guadalupe and Clemente, to perform the sacri-
fice for him. They clambered down and Guadalupe
deposited in a crack of the old lava the ceremonial ob-
jects we had brought along. These objects were an
arrow, as a mark of respect and for the use of the god;
a prayer-stick, colored by red ochre with a small eagle
plume tied to its top, to secure luck in hunting; a bunch
of yucca fibre tied in a knot, in order that the wind might

Guadalupe at the sacred cave of Pinacate

MAKING OUR VISIT 209

be favorable to us; some cigarettes for the god's personal
use; a piece of blue glass bead necklace, for the god to
use as appendages for his ears and for the septum of
his nose. On their own account Guadalupe and Cle-
mente each placed a strand of fibre in order that noth-
ing untoward should happen to either of them while
on the expedition, asking especially for protection against
storms.

While this was being done the old man lighted a
cigarette and, turning his face toward the west where the
sea is, though hidden from view by the peak that rose
above us, he made his prayer aloud to Iitoi, smoking now
and then and blowing the smoke in the same direction.

"I did not come to visit you because the weather
was bad," he said. "Now I have come to leave these
things here. I could not find your house because it is
so different now. With whom are you angry ? Perhaps
you are angry with us because we do not visit you more
often. A man comes here from the other side of the
sea to know your house. I bring him and his compan-
ions from Sonoita. Give good luck to the man and to
us all. Give good luck to the hunters that he has with
him. Give them a mountain-sheep that you do not
need for yourself. Give me good luck on my return
home. Don't let it rain while I travel. Stop the wind."

The ceremonies over, he began to make his way
back to camp while we continued our ascent at one
o'clock in the afternoon. Near the rim of a small crater,
two-thirds up from here, quails and a cotton-tail enli-
vened the scene. I had expected to be troubled by

210 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

spiny choyas when walking in the slippery cinders, but
there were none growing toward the top; in fact, I hardly
observed half a dozen the whole day. As we approached
the top the paths of the mountain-sheep were very no-
ticeable in the loose cinders, as distinct as if a dozen
men had been marching in file, and leading upward in
fairly good grades. The roads became more numerous
as we ascended, and often we saw the lairs of the sheep
where their bodies had left shallow hollows in the cin-
ders, there being perhaps half a dozen or more at each
place. These animals seem to select the most lofty
places for camping although they may never be dis-
turbed by human beings; even at the very top, toward
the east, their camps were seen, and one at only ten
yards from the summit. Our ascent ended at 2.40 p. m.
My aneroids, subject to the uncertainty inherent in all
those instruments, at the top showed an elevation of
4,400 feet, at a temperature of 41 ° F., and our camp to
be 2,475 feet lower. The other peak, which is west,
a little to the south, is scarcely a mile off, and visibly
higher, the difference being only about a hundred feet.

The view was fine and quite extensive; the upper
part of the Gulf of California and the sand dunes that
border it are not far off. The mountains of Lower
California seemed to stretch out in a long, even range.
The distant sierras and llanos looked impressive, and
as for Pinacate itself, it seemed to be composed of sev-
eral hundred volcanoes of no great height or prominence,
which in their mass form a sierra, as the Mexicans call
it, with several outlying cones and craters, especially

COLD WEATHER 211

toward the north. The lava flow, which reaches from
the southern point of Sierra Blanca to La Playa in the
north, is about forty-five miles long and thirty miles at
the widest place.

During the hour and a half spent on top I took
photographs of the panorama which spread itself around
us, but the north-westerly wind, at first slight and then
increasing in strength, began to interfere so much that
it knocked down my tripod, breaking one of its legs.
The temperature steadily fell until it reached 320 F.
and we were all shivering with cold, one of the Mexi-
cans literally trembling. A small fire, which we suc-
ceeded in making from some remains of bushes that
were lying about, served to warm us up somewhat,
though the ache in my finger tips did not abate and
brought back to memory bitterly cold days of my boy-
hood in Norway. Toward sunset it grew hazy and in-
distinct, clouds began to obscure the horizon drawing
nearer as if a storm were approaching. We were all
glad to leave the top and to begin our descent, sliding
quickly along in the loose cinders and arriving after
dark at our sheltered camp.

In the night a gale from the north broke upon us,
bringing cold, crisp, and clear weather in its wake. It
felt like real winter and in the morning we had to move
our kitchen down for shelter into a cut of the arroyo,
and also to make a barricade of uprooted bushes and
plants against the wind. A hardy humming-bird was
observed hovering above the chuparosas,

Quelele, having complied with his obligations, de-

212 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

parted during the day, Alberto being commissioned to
take him safely back to Sonoita in the wagon which we
had left at the foot of the mountains. Clemente, the
interpreter, went with him. He had served me well for
two or three months and had for some time been
anxious to return to his native place, Caborca, to look
after his private affairs. He was an able and truthful
Indian, who spoke Spanish well, though his extreme
sensitiveness to anything that he imagined savored of
criticism interfered to some extent with his usefulness.
Alberto was to return within a specified time, bringing
back from Sonoita the man who was to guide us to the
Colorado River as well as provisions.

The clear, cold weather continued for four days; the
water froze in our big canteens, and on the ponds in the
arroyo the ice was an inch and a quarter thick and had
to be broken in order to make it possible for our ani-
mals to drink. Water which was put on the fire for
cooking purposes was largely in the form of lumps of
ice, making genuine American ice-water.

Taking Charlie and the remaining Mexican with
me, I proceeded on an excursion to a large crater east
of our camp which I had seen on ascending the peak,
and which looked as if it were a large circular hole on
the plain. It is little known among the very few Mexi-
cans who visit the Pinacate region and had been men-
tioned to me as the largest and the most beautiful of all
the craters here. The only life observed on the road
was when one or two of the little ground-squirrels that
hold their tails erect, ran across our path, and a raven

A BEAUTIFUL CRATER 213

was noticed sitting on a stump and watching perhaps
for some lizard to come out into the sun. One won-
ders what this bird can find to eat here, but there is a
certain tuberous plant growing on the plains called
covena, which furnishes a favorite food supply.

Approaching the crater from the south as we did,
there appears a long, low slanting ridge which is its
rim, rising only at the highest point from about one
hundred to one hundred and fifty feet above the sur-
rounding country. It is easy to ride up to the top of
this ridge. On reaching this and taking a few steps
forward, the magnitude and beautiful regularity of the
circular opening which yawns impressively before one is
surprising. I do not know how deep it is, for I had
no opportunity to attempt a descent, which is said to
be feasible though very difficult, and it looks difficult
too, for the walls have crumbled less than is the case
with other craters I saw later in that region. Com-
pared with these, I should think this would be about
eight hundred feet deep. The bottom is flat and the
talus reaches about half-way up the steep sides. It is
probably the deepest of all the craters there, and is by
far the most beautiful, so the name Crater Elegante
would be appropriate for it.

The bottom looks like quite an attractive country;
the same vegetation is observed there as above the sur-
face, and some additional, for, besides the patches of
galleta grass, there is a large bluish-white patch that ap-
peared through my field-glass like a growth of the arrow-
bush (in Spanish cachanilla). This would indicate that

2i4 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

there is water, though probably below the surface. Sa-
huaros are seen to grow down there, as also choya and
the barrel cactus, palo verde, and palo fierro; most prom-
inent of all is the white brittle bush which, as white
dots, appears everywhere and even up on the sides of the
talus. According to Mexican information, a bush called
quaviri grows there, as well as the plant istafiate. Sal-
itre is said to be present in spots toward the south; it
occurs on the surface in small patches a mile or so be-
fore arriving at the crater.

To get some idea of the size of this opening in the
earth, we rode around it, following an old, fairly good
trail along the rim. The trail was used formerly by
the Indians in their pursuit of mountain-sheep, which
occasionally descend into the crater, and fresh tracks of
these animals were seen near by. Some of the Indians,
armed with bows and arrows, would follow the sheep
down, while others would watch for their egress from
above. We rode as fast as our horses could walk, and
accomplished the circuit in fifty minutes; making al-
lowance for a slower pace one-third of the way, on ac-
count of the stony character of the road, I think it safe
to say that the opening is a circle three miles around.

It was nearly six o'clock and already dark when we
retraced our steps. A chilling northerly wind was blow-
ing, but we warmed ourselves around a large fire of dry
ocotillo and departed. As long as Venus gave light we
travelled pretty well, stopping several times for a few
minutes to warm ourselves. It was only a matter of a
few moments to make a fire by throwing a match into

MATERIAL FOR FIRE 215

the tall, dry galleta grass, patches of which we passed
now and then. The wind blew the large waves of heat
over us and our riding animals, which seemed to enjoy
the comforting warmth and even the cheering aspect of
it as much as we did. There is at least one advantage
in travelling in the desert, and that is that there are so
many inflammable bushes and trees. A fire can gener-
ally be made quicker here than in any other country I
know of; a match to the choya and all the bristles take
fire as if they were tinder, and the spines of the sahuaro
burn in the same way. The small bush tovoso, which
grows everywhere in the desert region, contains so much
resinous matter that it burns even when green and wet;
for the same reason the primitive looking canutillo
{ephedra) of the sand dunes furnishes a flaring blaze.
Dry ocotillos are often seen lying about on the ground,
especially along the bases of the mountains, ready at a
minute's notice to make an excellent flame. The sa-
huaro or the choya when dry burn almost equally as
well, and the brittle bush may serve as fuel when the
fire is already made.

After a while it grew as dark as night can be, and we
could not see each other as we walked leading our ani-
mals one after the other in order to keep warm. The
rough, black lava ridges we now and then had to cross
tried us sorely, and the brittle bushes were our only
guidance here, standing out as whitish spots among the
now invisible but hard and sharp lava blocks. Once I
stumbled down a small lava ridge, which to the eye ap-
peared as even ground; I swung down and down over

216 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

big blocks, landing finally with my right hand against the
rough lava; my escape from breaking a limb was truly
wonderful.

About ten o'clock we arrived in camp, tired and pre-
pared to eat anything in sight. The shelter of bushes
in the arroyo, which we called la cocina (kitchen), beck-
oned to us very hospitably with its substantial fire of
palo verde wood and the ollas, pots, and kettles standing
warm awaiting us. Guadalupe had retired for the night,
but arose to take care of our riding animals. He had
a splendid supper ready consisting of boiled mountain-
sheep with bones and consomme. I know of no meat
that can compare in flavor with that of the mountain-
sheep, even if the animal be old. Also the Indian possesses
the secret of boiling meat slowly, and the jrijoles (beans)
served were for the same reason excellent without the
adding of any lard; few people know what a delicate,
though little pronounced, natural flavor beans have.
Until I had been among Indians I did not know this,
and only extreme hunger would now induce me to eat
the tasteless horror of so-called Boston baked beans.
Guadalupe had made for me in addition some tortillas
of very fine quality, and I congratulated myself upon
having such a useful Indian with me.

CHAPTER XIV

CHANGING CAMP— MOUNTAIN-SHEEP— THE USEFUL GREASEWOOD
—PALO FIERRO, THE FRIENDLY DESERT TREE— LOS MEDANOS,
THE GREAT SAND DUNES— UNUSUAL TRACKS— ABANDONED
INDIAN CAMPS— NEW SIERRAS— LA TINAJA DE LOS PAPAGOS—
VISIT TO A CRATER

On Sunday, January 9, we moved camp to the place
where Alberto and the guide were to meet us, in the
southern Pinacate Mountains, one mile from the pool
called Tinaja del Cuervo. We followed an Indian trail
descending to the llano, and as we passed an old Indian
camping place near a water pool, a large olla was found
entire among the greasewood bushes and a big sea-shell
used by the Indians as a drinking vessel was lying on
the ground. In the arroyos that run down from the
mountains the palo fierro grew to unusual size and
beauty, and quails, doves, and other birds were about.
I remained behind and as I rode along, taking topo-
graphical notes, I was suddenly confronted by a coyote,
dragging its hind quarters painfully along, apparently
paralyzed. At first sight I thought it might have rabies;
then, as I rode nearer to take a photograph, the animal
simply lay down, offering no resistance even when my
terrier began to look it over. It had a fresh wound in
the left side, which told me that it had been struck by

a bullet from my party ahead. Mavit repeatedly dug

217

218 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

his nose into its side and back, but he did not seem to
want to do it any harm.

After a march of about five hours, over good road
mostly, we arrived at our destination, an inlet from the
llano at the base of the mountains, well protected by
sheltering ridges running down from above. An abun-
dance of galleta grass was growing here, and hence the
locality was called Galletal. Mezquites, palo fierro, and
various bushes indicated the course of an arroyo, near
which we made camp. The Tinaja del Galletal, three-
quarters of a mile higher up the arroyo, was found to
be dry, but in another arroyo, a mile north of our camp,
there was water in the Tinaja del Pinto, known hitherto
possibly only to the Indians, though trails led up to
both pools. I found this to be a better camping place
than the Tinaja del Cuervo, close by, the usual stopping
place of Indians and Mexicans on their salt expeditions
to the coast.

We had plenty of partly green grass and much wood,
the situation was very pleasant, and I greatly enjoyed
the calm and mild weather after the cold and windy
week we had just passed. The locality was alive with
quail; in the mornings after dawn they would begin
emitting a low cackling note while feeding in the quaviri
trees {lycium) that grew here and there about the camp.
These small, pretty trees with their light green foliage
seemed to be the favorite feeding ground of the quail.
Both the young leaves and especially the red berries are
eaten; the latter are also relished by the Papago, either
dried or boiled. It is strangely difficult to see these

HUNTING MOUNTAIN-SHEEP 219

birds when feeding or roosting, though they frequent trees
that, compared with others, have small leaves and few
of them. It was surprising to find that a tree of small
dimensions might harbor as many as a couple of dozen
feeding among its delicate foliage. These birds rest for
the night in the mezquite and the palo fierro.

It was desirable to have dried mountain-sheep meat
for our proposed expedition to the Colorado River, and
I also wanted to preserve some skins and skulls for
scientific use. This was welcome news to the two Mexi-
cans, who were very anxious to start shooting. The
first day's hunt resulted in ten shots being fired at one
animal without apparently wounding it seriously, if at
all, but the second day, after dark, they reported that
they had killed six sheep which they had encountered
up in the mountains four or five miles away. They had
shot them in the course of two hours. According to
their story, and this was confirmed by my experience
later, generally those of a flock which are not hit do not
run far, but soon stop to look at the intruder. They
are stupid, though nervous animals, and very inquisi-
tive; as one of the Mexicans expressed it, they lend
themselves very well to the camera. Our principal
hunter gave it as his opinion that if one shoots at a
mountain-sheep without hitting him, he looks at you, for
el cimaron es muy hombre (the mountain-sheep is very
courageous). These animals never attack man, but in
the summer the males fight much between themselves.
The skins which I brought back from this expedition
are all from Ovis Canadensis Gaillardi. It is a smaller

220 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

animal than that of the Rocky Mountains. The horns
are long and strongly incurved. Mountain-sheep are
found in most of the sierras of southern Arizona and
north-western Sonora, from Tinajas Altas to Port Lobos,
especially in the Gila, the Cabeza Prieta and the Mo-
hawk Ranges, Sierra de Cubabi and Sierra de Santa
Rosa. They may still be encountered in Sierra del Viejo
and Sierra del Alamo and in rare instances survive al-
most as far as the neighborhood of Hermosillo. These
are all one species.

We now had more than sufficient game for our needs,
and for two days we were kept busy bringing the quarry
in, skinning and cutting the meat in long strips which
were hung up to dry. Even dry, this meat tastes very
good, and does not grow hard as that of oxen. Some of
it which I brought to New York had preserved the same
pleasant flavor, although it had been cured without
much care and was over a year old. It is much improved
by sprinkling salt on the strips before drying. Alberto
and our guide, Clodomiro Lopez, arrived opportunely to
help us in our butchering.

The two Mexicans I had sent to investigate the condi-
tion of the small tinaja near the north end of Sierra
Blanca to the south of us, found it dry. It does not
last usually more than three months, so a contemplated
visit to this little-known locality had, therefore, to be
postponed until a more opportune time. After our
horses had all been shod for the hard malpais, as the
Mexicans call the lava flow which we should have to
traverse, we started, continuing to skirt the Pinacate

FIRST VIEW OF THE SAND DUNES 221

until we reached the starting point for our western ex-
pedition. Our pack animals were eleven, four mules
and seven burros.

As we gained a point of vantage on the malpais, which
stretched widely down from Pinacate, high sand dunes
appeared against the overcast sky about two miles away.
The sea was some fifteen miles distant from here and
would have been visible but for the dull day. At first
sight the row of big sand-hills appeared as if bathed in a
dim sunlight, but this was only apparently so and is due
to their peculiar light roseate tinge, which is less marked
in the low dunes near the sea where the sand is much
lighter in color. We approached them nearer and nearer,
and finally travelled beside them over sandy flats that run
up among the low lava ridges. Among the lava small
green bushes, evidently owing their existence mostly to
moisture from the sea, made their appearance.

We still had the greasewoods with us, though much
more scattered ; even in the depressions between the great
waves of the dunes this bush ekes out an existence,
though often half buried by the sand. Here for the
first time I had occasion to see its mistletoe, a parasitic
plant called by the Mexicans toji; it is found only on the
coast and is famous among the Mexicans as a wonderful
remedy. A tea made from it is supposed to relieve all
kinds of stomach ailments from colic to dysentery. Clo-
domiro, the guide, found this tea so refreshing that he
used it as a beverage whenever he had an opportunity.
Parasitic plants of similar appearance also grow in abun-
dance on the palo verde as well as on the palo fierro and

222 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

on the mezquite, but they are of another kind and not of
medicinal value. The one on the greasewood of the coast
is not very common. I have not tried its efficacy, but, judg-
ing from the extraordinary antiseptic properties of the
bush on which it lives, I am inclined to think well of the
remedy. Steeping some twigs and leaves of the grease-
wood in boiling-hot water produces a remarkable antisep-
tic. My dog was bitten once by another dog at a particu-
larly delicate place, and the wound, somewhat hidden
from view, caused great inconvenience after a few days
and was much swollen. Even after having been liberated
from maggots, which were found to be the main cause of
the trouble, the dog was very ill; he could walk with
difficulty and it seemed very likely that he would die, but
within twelve hours after the application of this simple
remedy he had recovered.

The greasewood is the ever-ready and unfailing rem-
edy of the ranchero and of the Papago for all kinds of
wounds. It is also taken internally in case of any gastric
disturbance. The Mexicans have many remedies, but
this is one about which there is no difference of opinion.
For internal use, however, the parasitic growth of this
bush is considered superior. The American frontiers-
man by steeping the mashed leaves of the greasewood in
water produces what he considers a wonderful laxative.
The greasewood supplies a few of the not very numerous
wants of the Papago. A piece of this wood tied to a
sahuaro stick, for instance, furnishes a hook for bringing
down fruit. The small rasping sticks which the medicine-
man employs when treating members of a salt expedition,

The lonely palo fierro

An unusually large specimen on the llano, before arriving at Tinajas Altas

Greasewood bushes

Hauling palo fierro branches for camp fire at dusk

THE ATTRACTIVE GREASEWOOD 223

are made from greasewood, while those used for other
purposes are made of various materials to fit the occasion.
The secretions of a scale insect carteria, which are de-
posited on the branches of this bush, serve the Papago for
several purposes. Handles for the awls which the women
employ in the manufacture of baskets are of this material,
which is first dried in the sun and ground, then heated on
a piece of crockery over the fire, and moulded into shape.
Also balls for the foot-races are made from it, a stone being
placed inside. Besides it serves for mending pottery.

The greasewood is as hardy as the cactus and the har-
diest of all the trees or bushes of the desert. It contents
itself with poor soil if necessary, but it attains its finest
development on the rich detritus of the llanos. Perhaps
the varnish-like substance which covers its leaves and
makes them sticky helps to protect the plant by preventing
evaporation and its roots probably reach down very deep.
However that may be, it is always flourishing, even in
the fiercest heat. To me the greasewood is a symbol for
health and an example of cheerful existence under adverse
circumstances. It gives out an odor which it would be
impossible to count among the perfumes of the world and
which suggested the name creosote bush contemptuously
applied to it. The Mexicans for the same reason call it by
the uncomplimentary name hediondia. To some people
like myself its odor, being salubrious, is more pleasant than
otherwise. Though, strictly speaking, nothing in nature
is ugly, the greasewood could not be called beautiful, ex-
cept, perhaps, when covered in the spring with its small
yellow, jolly flowers. It may be compared to a person

224 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

radiant with health and good cheer, for which he is liked,
though he may not be handsome. Were I a poet, I should
sing the praise of the modest greasewood of sterling qual-
ities.

Half a dozen quails looked lazily at us from the top of
a large sand dune as we passed along. The small reddish
tree called sangrengado was seen at intervals; its finer
branches serve the Papago as material for basket making
and, as well as the bark, offer tempting morsels for the
mountain-sheep. The fragrant odor of copal was evi-
dent for a little while, although we did not discover its
source.

We camped on the sand for the night. Although
there was considerable galleta grass growing here and
there, all the mules, donkeys, and horses gathered at once
around a lone but very large palo fierro tree to eat its dark
green juicy leaves, which they much preferred. They
stretched their necks like giraffes in eager competition
and, paying no heed to its numerous thorns, they pulled
away mouthfuls of leaves. We usually cut down large
branches, Mexican fashion, from which they could feed
more comfortably. The palo fierro {olneya tesota) is to
one who travels in the desert the most useful of all trees;
whenever it is to be found, his animals are sure to get
something good to eat, and the man who gathers wood
for the camp first of all directs his steps toward it. Usually
some of its branches are dry, and they furnish the very
best camp-fire, especially for cooking purposes. In the
cold winter, when a warm fire is needed, the traveller
should look for a dry log of this kind. As the wood is

SAND-HILLS 225

extremely hard — hence its name, iron-wood — the easiest
way to fell a dry tree is to make a fire round the base. It
ignites easily and burns the whole night through without
any further attention. During many months of travel in
the desert, I was always thankful when I caught sight of
this tree which harbors so much comfort for man and
beast. In the spring, before the leaves come out, it has
beautiful flowers of the pea family.

There was, of course, no water here, but at this time
of the year animals that are being worked do not suffer
from going a couple of days without drinking. In the
winter at Sonoita the horses running loose in the neighbor-
hood come in to drink only every fourth day, and in the
summer every third day. For our own consumption we
had our generous barrels which we refilled when occasion
offered. The sand was temptingly clean and made a
soft bed, all the men delighting in it. The next day I re-
mained behind with the guide in order to examine the sand
dunes. That part of the sand-dune belt where we were,
south of Pinacate, starts only twenty to twenty-five miles
east of there. The height of a sand-hill that we ascended
was one hundred and eighty-five feet, both my aneroids
giving the same result. I calculated the length of its base,
which was measured by the steps of our horses, to be at
least two thousand eight hundred feet. There were others
equally high or higher. Farther west, toward Laguna
Prieta, are found the highest sand-hills, but they would
probably not be much above two hundred feet, if measured.
On top of the one we climbed, an absolute calm reigned.
Toward the west as far as the eye could detect the dunes

226 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

extended, like the sea when exposed to a strong gale in
appearance, though with waves much more irregular.
The large ones, forming the extreme northern part of the
belt, were fewer than I expected. Southward from our
hill the waves first became considerably smaller, then
grew somewhat higher again before reaching the coast,
where they ended in more or less irregular sand flats or
low hills. The sea did not seem more than eight or nine
miles away.

The Mexicans use the euphonious name medanos
for the sand dunes, great and small; in fact, the whole
region along the upper part of the Gulf east of the Colo-
rado River is thus designated. The name has an almost
mystic sound, suggesting in the summer aridity and dan-
ger, fierce heat, rattlesnakes, and other reptiles — in the
winter cold wind, fog, and occasional drizzling rain.

Most Mexicans are afraid of los medanos, as they
themselves have told me, on account of the risk of losing
animals and of the troubles in general connected with
travel there. As is the case with all regions about which
little or nothing is known, the sand region is reputed to
harbor fabulous wealth of gold and silver in its hill-tops
and mountain ranges, and a lonely prospector with a
couple of donkeys sometimes attempts in the winter an
exploration for these precious metals. His expectations
may lead him farther than is prudent, and his canteens
may give out too soon for him to have time to return for
water. There is nothing depressing, however, about the
sand dunes. In the late afternoon sun, when seen from
the north, they look especially picturesque, running one

CURIOUS BEHAVIOUR 227

after the other in long, majestic, though somewhat uneven,
waves of light roseate hue.

A curious feature of the dunes south of Pinacate was
a remarkable display of tracks made by the big beetle from
which the whole region derived its Mexican name. These
insects (eleodes), of which the body may be over an inch
in length, were numerous at that time of the year in the
northern part of the sand dunes. In certain localities
they are the principal means of subsistence for the coyote.
They wander far and wide on the sand, leaving surpris-
ingly large tracks, most of which are fairly straight. The
weather had been calm for twenty-four hours at least, and
the tracks were even more distinct than those seen on cold,
hard snow. The long lines ran almost parallel to each
other across the great fans of sand that stretched down
from the tops of the dunes. Some of them ran upward,
for these beetles wander to the very summit. One of
them in coming down the slope of a drift had amused him-
self in going in a spiral line for many yards and then
continuing in his ordinary fashion. The beetle to which
this pictograph was due was undoubtedly a different
species, because its tracks were somewhat lighter and
the straight line less pronounced. Another one had for
many yards followed the ridge of a sand drift, but pro-
gressing all the while from one side to the other, and
leaving low, hanging festoons from the top of the ridge
in regular serpentine figure. Only one, making his way
very straight and quite fast up the slope toward the ridge
on which we stood, was actually seen. I was puzzled as
to why these insects should go up there on the sand

228 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

dunes, but, whatever their reasons were, they certainly
left in their wake beautiful decorative marks hundreds
of feet long.

The pool called Tinaja de los Chivos was reached
on a slowly rising lava flow ten miles north of the sand
dunes. There is no grass within a mile or two of this
camp, which derives its Mexican name from the vulgar
designation of mountain-sheep as chivos, goats. Fuel is
also scarce here. It is the largest of all the natural
water tanks of the Pinacate and lasts longer than the
rest. It is situated at the junction of two arroyos, and
at one of them, a mile away, is found another reservoir,
called Tinaja del Tule. The following morning the sky
was overcast with stratus and light nimbus clouds, and
the long even range of Lower California looked quite
impressive in the hazy atmosphere. Before sunrise we
had a beautiful tanager-red glow which extended over
the western horizon before it assumed a blue hue.

In order to reach the next place where water is
found, Tinaja de los Papagos, a circuitous route has to
be followed. In descending to the dunes again, we
found a very good track which led to the head-quarters,
four miles away, of the former sand-dune people. The
trail was worn a foot deep in places, and stones had been
removed to smoothe the path for the busy feet of the
women who had to go this distance every day to fill their
jars. We discovered two old camps at the edge of the
dunes, each on a low sand ridge. There were the usual
features of rude corrals of stones, but the sand inside of
them had been scooped out, leaving a hollow. Some-

-%* >. ;■. * ■:-. <CT3?;

Mountain sheep, female

Tracks of beetles (Eleodes) on
sand dune

Tracks of beetles (Eleodes) on sand dune

OPPORTUNITY LOST 229

times pits were noticed without any stones around them.
On a plain near by feasts and ceremonies had in former
times been performed, and among them the great annual
festival which is now given at Quitovac.

The afternoon turned out to be moderately warm
and calm, the sun appearing now and then, and the
weather, for the middle of January, was very enjoyable.
I ascended a small ridge at one side of the track to get
a better view of a crumbling and much serrated sierra
which appeared in front of us, and near which we were
going to camp. It showed two formations, most of it
the usual gray, weather-worn granite, but at the south-
eastern end an intrusion of a reddish rock had taken
place, which proved afterward to consist of rhyolite with
an oxydized rim of red. South of it at a short dis-
tance stretched a low, jagged -range, half buried in the
sand. To the north-east, south of the Gila Range and
far away at the end of a large llano, a single moun-
tain was seen. It looked deep blue and, having no
name, we called it Cerro Pinto, because its color is dif-
ferent from the rest of the mountains. The distant
country westward, directly in front of us, presented a
sea of sand dunes that seemed to stretch on indefinitely,
offering a fascinating vista. Just as the sun, breaking
through the clouds, covered them with a brilliant white
light, I turned around to secure my camera, and in doing
so was delayed scarcely a minute, but when I looked
again westward, while adjusting my kodak, all the
magic of the scene was gone — the sun was hidden from
view and all chance of photography over, though I

230 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

waited half an hour for another. An opportunity to
take such a picture never did return as long as the expe-
dition lasted. The lesson I learned from this is appre-
ciated by every one who is interested in photographing,
and that is to be ever ready at the very moment the
opportunity offers itself.

While our animals were taken the next day for water
to the tinaja ten miles away, I spent a day at the base of
the much serrated sierra in order to examine this moun-
tain range as well as the other one that is partly buried
in the sand. I named the first one Sierra Extrafia
(Strange Sierra), because its gray color with a tinge of
green seemed so strange to us after having been so long
accustomed to the dark lava. It is only about six miles
long, running in the main direction of the rest of the
mountain ranges. The outer granite is crumbling more
than on any other sierra observed on the journey, hence its
native name, kokomaleke (small stone blocks). It is de-
void of vegetation except for a few struggling ocotillos and
greasewoods, and a sangrengado now and then. On the
south-western side the wind has blown up the sand some-
what on the sides, but, seen against the dark background
of Pinacate, the little range with its exaggerated serra-
tion shows to advantage. The other sierra, which I called
Sierra Enterada (Buried Sierra), some six miles south of
it, is nearly the same length, but lower, the crest reach-
ing an elevation of about one thousand two hundred feet,
three-quarters of it being buried in the sand dunes. From
the top we could plainly discern the fresh tracks of a
horse, leading westward through the great waste of sand.

A FEARLESS BIRD 231

My guide thought that a solitary Indian called Carava-
jales, one of the former sand people who persists in liv-
ing out there, had passed. This hermit makes his head-
quarters at the Tinaja de los Papagos.

In the low sand dunes among the greasewood bushes
I noticed once or twice a tiny spray of sand being thrown
up as if caused by an ant lion, but the insect could not
be found. I later came across a small representative of
animal life here, a roach with long legs, which was known
to my guide as found among the sand dunes, though
he said it was rare. A mocking-bird {mimus), very
inquisitive and which had evidently never seen people
before, arrived in our camp and moved about fearlessly,
passing my camera within four feet. It actually alighted
on the toe of the shoe of one of the Mexicans who was
sitting on the ground and next settled on the rim of a
large dish, dipping itself repeatedly in the water and
drinking of it. These birds are often seen far from
water.

Six miles before arriving at Tinaja de los Papagos
we passed numerous burrows of the badger. This ani-
mal, too, does not seem to care much as to whether he
lives near water or not. When we came to the abode
of the Indian hermit, Caravajales, who would have been
a useful man to take along through the western desert,
we found him to be absent. After sunset hundreds of
pigeons came in a steady stream to drink, settling first
on the rocks for several minutes before finally flying to
the pools, two of which at that time contained water;
the stony sides of the latter were literally covered with

232 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

the birds, and after dark the last ones flew away. There
are three pools in this wild-looking arroyo, which at the
time of showers gather the precipitation for many miles
up in the lava flow. The middle one was dry and the
water in the others was low. The lower one, nearest
our camp and very accessible for the animals, could not
then, according to our guide's calculation, be made dry
by three hundred head of cattle drinking at one time.
Water can usually be depended upon at this camp.

The watercourse, from forty to sixty paces wide, can
easily be made out on the big hard andesite boulders
from a distance, and, on examining the surface, it is
found to be actually polished by the action of water
and has rather a faded color. That such should be the
case is very remarkable, considering the extreme hard-
ness of the rock and the great length of time that would
be needed to accomplish this effect, if the water were
supplied only from a few showers in July and August.
This seems to me another proof of the climatic change
that has taken place in the desert region of Arizona
and Sonora, the polish of the rocks probably dating
from a comparatively recent time when precipitation
was more abundant.

The next day a tour was made to a large and beautiful-
crater, two and a half miles north-east of the tinaja, to
which a fairly good track leads. In the morning before
sunrise the same phenomenon of sunlight by refraction
that I had noted twice before was observed, though the
coloring was stronger; it was very noticeable in my tent,
the light beginning twenty minutes before sunrise and

Crater Elegante

The watercourse at Tinaja de Los Papagos

A DESERTED HABITATION 233

fading away a few minutes before the sun rose, and it
was strongest twelve minutes before the actual appearance
of the sun.

Half a mile from the pools I photographed an Indian
habitation, of which there are several in the neighborhood.
They seem to be more recently deserted than others met
with before; in fact, as stated above, one man still has his
abode there. The corral, or sleeping place of the family,
was made up of a few stones and uprooted tovoso bushes
placed in a circle. Between the stems of an ocotillo was
a platform consisting of a layer of white brittle bush and
tovoso. This had served as a shelf for jars and other
cooking utensils. Though several years must have elapsed
since this place was occupied, Clodomiro found an old
spade hidden under the platform and some medicinal
herbs, the latter wrapped in a cotton cloth.

The crater is very easily approached. The rim is one
hundred and thirty feet high at the place we ascended,
which was at its highest point. To descend either from
the south or the west into the crater involves no diffi-
culty; it took Clodomiro, the guide, only twenty minutes
to do so from the south. I have been down twice at this
side to an embankment that runs around the crater inside
just above where the talus begins. Measured by the
aneroid barometer, this is two hundred and eighty feet
down, and less than ten minutes are needed for the descent
as one slides along on the cinders. The depth, taken by
Mr. G. Sykes in 1907, seven hundred and thirty feet, ap-
pears correct. He found the diameter at the bottom to be
one thousand four hundred feet, and the bottom one hun-

234 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

dred and fifty feet above sea-level. It is a beautiful and
impressive crater, and was first visited in 1882 by Sr.
Y. Bonillas, the mining engineer in Nogales. In grandeur
and regularity of shape it is in the Pinacate region second
only to Crater Elegante. There are several large craters
in the Pinacate region, but none as perfect in shape as these
two, which present very clearly the phenomena connected
with their structure and origin and must be of unusual
interest to geology.

Clodomiro tried in vain to start out some mountain-
sheep from below for me to photograph. He heard dis-
tinctly the noise of rolling stones in the great talus and
my attention was called in the same way. But it is
strangely difficult to see the sheep under such conditions,
as their color is so much like their surroundings, and, as
the Mexicans said, "they stop behind the stones and you
cannot see them." Clodomiro scaled the talus almost
opposite to where he had made his descent, reaching the
ledge that led to my point of observation, from which we
again ascended to the rim. He saw many fresh tracks at
the bottom, all of them being, according to him, those of
females with young. During the entire year the moun-
tain-sheep are in the habit of going down into the craters,
but they are more prone to go there during the winter,
when they have their young, which is said to be in Novem-
ber. The vegetation below was the kind described at the
time of our visit to Crater Elegante, and in addition there
were many choyas seen. Both galleta grass and the fine
grass called sacate fino, or sacate de lievre, were observed
there.

CHAPTER XV

WESTWARD— LOOKING BACK TOWARD PINACATE— TINAJAS ALTAS
—ITS DISMAL MEMORIES— SUNSHINE AND MOONLIGHT OF THE
EARLY MORNING— EL CAPITAN— LAGUNA PRIETA, A SALT LAKE
—A LONG WAIT FOR WATER— HOW FRESH WATER APPEARS
AMONG BULRUSHES— APPROACHING THE COLORADO RIVER—
COLONIA LERDO— THE INDIANS AT THE LOWER PART OF THE
GREAT RIVER

On Thursday, January 20, a start for the Colorado
River was made. Our guide, Clodomiro Lopez, and his
brother, having first by explorations ascertained that it
was feasible to do so, had taken several herds of cattle
from Sonoita over our present camp to Laguna Prieta and
from there to Colonia Lerdo on the Colorado River, their
first trip having been made in October four years before.
There are about eighty miles without water by the route
which he chose and which is the straightest, and the
undertaking would have been impossible but for his dis-
covery of a small tinaja (natural tank) in Sierra de Lechu-
gilla; even thus the risks taken were considerable, and
many of the cattle died from thirst.

The question for us to decide was whether we should
follow the same route, hoping that there might be water
in the Lechugilla tank, or whether we should take the more
circuitous one over Tinaja del Tule and Tinajas Altas.
Clodomiro, the guide, maintained that even though the
tank lasts only for three months, our chances for finding
water there were good, and even if it should turn out to be

23s

236 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

dry, we could reach Tinajas Altas in three days without
water. I was inclined to accept the guide's opinion inas-
much as our animals were in good condition after their
long rest in Pinacate, but Alberto, who was the owner of
some of them, was little inclined to take any chances,
and as I should be able by the safer route to cover
more ground, some of it of considerable interest to me, I
chose that one.

The sand dunes which stretch northward from the
main belt, at no great distance west of Pinacate, are easily
crossed. The long, low ridges run here in a general di-
rection of north and south, forming a belt four miles and a
half wide. The highest point reached was, according to
my aneroid, about one thousand four hundred feet. In
crossing this belt from the east one ascends very gradually;
after a while small ridges, from a quarter to a half mile
long, appear for about a mile; then for two and a half miles
the ridges are larger though low, a mile or two, or more,
long, and there is half a mile between each one. The last
ones are the largest. I found the sand to contain moisture
six inches below the surface, and at one place I gathered
some of the beautiful large white flowers with which I be-
came familiar later (aenothera trichocalyx).

After a comfortable night spent on the outskirts of the
sand dunes we proceeded in a northerly direction between
two mountain ranges, to the east Sierra del Tuseral, about
thirty-five miles long, and to the west a sierra without
name, about seven miles long and running toward the
first one in an unusual northerly course. As this moun-
tain range looked singularly picturesque viewed from the

A BEAUTIFUL VIEW 237

north-west, I have named it Sierra Nina for my friend,
Mrs. John Gray, of Boston. Where these two ranges
approach each other there are two passes, formed by a
small intervening mountain; the western pass is the nar-
rower, and I named the eastern, which is quite beautiful,
Paso de Juana, for my friend, Mrs. David Lydig, of New
York.

This pass is only three hundred feet higher than the
sand dunes we crossed, and the ascent is very gradual,
but, as one looks backward on approaching the pass, one
has, on account of the varied colors, a surprisingly fine
view, enclosed between the two mountain ranges as if in
a frame. The different shades of green in the desert
vegetation, from the light one of the sahuaro and the oco-
tillo to the very sombre one of the greasewood, are bor-
dered by these two light gray diverging sierras, and some
dark reddish foot-hills in the foreground add to the variety.
Then follows transversely.the light roseate hue of the sand
belt and, above all, rises in the distant background, the
dark mass of the Pinacate Mountains, appearing quite
lofty through the pure air against the azure sky.

At Tinaja del Tule we were again on the old trail
from Caborca to Yuma, where we watered our animals
and filled our barrels. The pool is half a mile up a
narrow gorge and I was surprised at its small volume,
only twelve feet in diameter and three feet deep in the
middle. Still, as it is in sand, it contains somewhat
more water than is apparent, and it would cover a horse
standing in it. There are some smaller tanks higher up
in the gorge which at times have water. As soon as

238 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

our thirsty crew had been satisfied and had departed,
two butterflies alighted on the wet sand, one of medium
size and brown, the other a small blue one. It was
just noon and the canon felt pleasantly warm at 740 F.

The landscape which from here on presents many
sierras, at first near and then far, looked attractive in
the afternoon sun, making the mountains impressive
and seem much larger than they were in reality. We
camped on the extensive llano bordering the Gila Range
toward the east, near a palo fierro tree of unique size,
which rises in lonely grandeur above the lowly grease-
woods and is visible at a great distance. According to
the Mexicans, a whole family of fourteen was wiped out
here by the Papago Indians forty years ago; the Apaches
never came so far west. Whether such is the case, or
whether, as another report has it, the family perished from
lack of water, their graves are to be seen near by marked
by small stones placed in the surface so as to form crosses.
There is no water here, but enough grass, both galleta and
sacate fino, for pasture.

The soil on the llano was moist underneath the sur-
face which told us that during the stormy days of abor-
tive attempts at rain, which we had experienced at the
end of the year, rain had actually fallen here.* It fur-
ther indicated that we should probably have found
water in the small pool discovered by my guide in Sierra
de Lechugilla, if we had chosen the more direct route

* According to the reports of United States Weather Bureau, the rainfall at
Yuma, which is sixty miles from here, was on December 31, 1909, only ^es inch,
and on January 2, 1911, there fell --^n inch.

A NOTED CAMP 239

to Tinajas Altas. For the possible use of some future
traveller, I give here its location as it was described to
me. It is on the western side of the Sierra de Lechu-
gilla, at the base of the highest top, and is situated at
a point which from the north is one-third of the length
of the entire range.

As one approaches Tinajas Altas, little by little as-
cending from the llano that stretches northward as far
as the eye can follow, a beautiful view is had of the
mountains left behind, and among them the picturesque
range called Cabeza Prieta and the Tordillo Mountains,
both of delicate light gray color with curious intrusions
of very dark reddish rocks of volcanic origin. The range
derives its name, which means " black head," from this
strange contrast of color.

Tinajas Altas is a landmark in the local and recent
history of that desolate region. It is a dismal looking
place and, after having been accustomed to the absolute
cleanliness of nature, the experience of again meeting
with pieces of cast-off clothing, rusty tin cans, and other
cheerless marks of human occupancy which were apparent
here was not a pleasing one. There is a large space for
camping at the lower end of the little valley which begins
at the foot of the mountains where the principal pool is.
An embankment of gravelly detritus shuts off the view
toward the east, while high granite rocks, bare and hard,
rise forbiddingly on the other sides. Large boulders which
were once detached from the rocks above are lying at the
base of the steep mountain sides.

As a curious bit of information from the desert I

24o NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

may mention that at this camp, on January 23, I was
bitten by a mosquito, a few large ones being about.
The sierra is probably at this place narrower than else-
where, though it must be nearly a mile across. When
rain falls the formation is such as to favor the gathering
of water into one stream which rushes down the eastern
side and is retained in eight natural cavities, one above
the other. The lowest tank is very accessible, but the
rest are not, and there are stories of people having nearly
come to grief on attempting to climb the steep and slip-
pery sides. My guide told of a mountain-sheep that
once, when cornered, tumbled down in trying to escape
and fell into the lowest tank. A prospector in Tucson,
who ascended to the top, described to me a large sand
basin above the tinajas, a few hundred feet south of
which are a number of caves where pictographs are seen
as well as pounding-holes in the rocks. Not having
been there myself, I give the information with reserve.
The sand Papagoes had an important camp at Tinajas
Altas. The native name of the place is Oovuak, "where
arrows (60) were shot (vuak)." Two of their hero gods
shot arrows from each side of the range ; one did shoot
across, but where the arrow of the other one fell the pools
came forth.

Until recently mountain-sheep were extremely com-
mon here. Travellers, who in our days pass only at
long intervals, used to shoot them without any difficulty.
On one of the three occasions that I visited this place
a sheep watched us from the crest above for many min-
utes. Their number has of late greatly decreased. Ten

TTnajas Altas

Clemente: Pap ago

FlLLIXG OUR BARRELS AND CANTEENS AT TlNAJA DEL TULE

NUMBERS OF MOUNTAIN-SHEEP 241

years ago, when the guide and his brother rested here in
the middle of the day, they noticed sheep around the
upper pool; the animals were having a siesta, but scenting
intruders began to move off, walking up the mountains
in a steady stream of forty-five by actual count. From
curiosity the Mexicans climbed up to take a general look
at things, and were astonished at the exceedingly strong
odor left in the camping place of the sheep. On an-
other occasion, in the winter, the brothers heard during
the night a great deal of noise from the tops of the rocks
that rise immediately above the camp. The sheep were
tramping on the hard granite as if they were horses with
iron shoes. It seemed uncanny to the men, and they
thought of the many dead buried here; they began to
imagine that perhaps the dead were moving about, and
wrapped their blankets tighter around themselves. Clo-
domiro, who otherwise is no coward, assured me that
he would not care to sleep alone at this place, and Al-
berto quite agreed with him.

The locality harbors many unpleasant memories; in
the days of the California gold excitement, as well as
later, many people passed by here, and the lowest and
most accessible pool did not last very long. Too ex-
hausted to climb higher up, many died from thirst.
Capt. D. D. Gaillard, of the International Boundary
Commission, relates a pathetic story of three exhausted
prospectors who perished at the foot of the almost ver-
tical slope; their bodies were discovered a few days
later, the fingers worn to the bones in their dying efforts
to reach water which was found in abundance in the

242 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

tank above. Others would fight for the possession of
the water and kill each other. People were murdered
who were suspected of carrying gold or other valuable
possessions. The dead were buried on the top of the
embankment that shuts off the view toward the east.
A small cross of stones embedded in the ground indi-
cates where a person is buried underneath. We counted
fifty-four of such crosses here; time has perhaps de-
stroyed as many more and there were many, no doubt,
who were buried without any sign to mark the spot.
Holes had been dug in the ground at three or four places
in the hopes of finding riches, for tradition has it that
travellers, their animals having given out or for other
reasons, buried their treasures here, and even the camp-
ing place had been searched for these.

On the day of our departure for the Colorado River
we coaxed our mules and horses in vain to drink; they
had satisfied their thirst the day before and did not care
for any more the next morning. The burros, however,
which on the whole seem able to take better care of
themselves, went to the pool voluntarily and prepared
for the day by drinking. The sierra is easily crossed
by a circuitous route a little farther north which finally
takes one through a natural pass. Coming out on the
western side, that which appears most striking is a pict-
uresque sierra rising boldly from among great sand
dunes toward the south. It can also be seen from Pina-
cate and from the Colorado River. It looked deep blue
in the hazy and calm afternoon as we began to leave
it behind. Though not visited by whites, according to

UNUSUAL SUNRISE 243

reports, this mountain range has received various names,
of which the most appropriate is Sierra del Rosario.

The next morning, Tuesday, January 25, I again,
and for the fourth time, saw sunshine by refraction, and
this time along with the moonlight of the early morning.
The sun shone into my tent, the opening of which looked
toward the north-east, for twenty-three minutes before it
rose, and the full moon was bright at the same time for
five minutes. Although the coloring in general was light
orange red, and in the east brilliantly so, the moon was
surrounded by a deep blue light. During the night there
had been a strong breeze from the north which had
died out, and a light air current only from the same
direction remained. There were cirrus and stratus
clouds about; the atmosphere became more and more
hazy, and when the moon set, which was as far as it
was possible to judge correctly, eleven minutes before
seven, the atmosphere was so hazy that one could fancy
oneself at a seaport instead of in a dry desert. Although
a moderate northern gale sprang up at ten o'clock in the
morning, the atmosphere continued hazy.

We passed Monument 194 and continued our course
toward a lonely hill which had been visible on the west-
ern horizon since our exit from the sierra. For future
travellers this is a very important landmark; it leads in
the right direction toward Laguna Prieta, where the first
fresh water will be found after leaving Tinajas Altas.
I called this mountain El Capitan.

The extensive flat country over which we passed slopes
gradually down to the sand dunes. In parts it consists

244 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

of small fertile basins where sunflowers (encelia erioce-
phala) and two kinds of herba del negro, sphceralcea
incana and s. oruttii, grew, especially the latter, which
appeared in great numbers. Though waterless, the re-
gion has in a few places, as for instance near El Capitan,
excellent pasturage and this favorable condition continues
almost up to the Colorado River; at first our animals
depended upon the coarse galleta grass which was then
green, but beyond Laguna Prieta there appeared more
of the delicate looking grass called sacate fino, which
grows desert-fashion, each plant widely separated from
the other, and is much liked by cattle and horses.

El Capitan is in reality several hills. Of the two
nearest to our approach, the south-eastern one, El Capi-
tan proper, consists of slate; the other one is a limestone
formation, in horizontal, varicolored streaks of white,
brown, and slate. For about a mile before reaching El
Capitan we crossed small mesas covered with smooth,
very pretty, water-worn pebbles, of jasper and quartz,
which my men eagerly gathered as curios. They were
also observed later by the thousands in similar localities
as far as the Colorado River, and were souvenirs of a
time when that whole country was under the sea.

To reach Laguna Prieta was a more laborious task
than we had expected. It seemed a long distance, and
as the guide and I rode along behind the rest of the
party, I expressed my astonishment at his feat of having
taken cattle over this route and successfully arriving at
the Colorado River. No tracks were to be seen any
more except indistinctly at one place, as the wind soon

Laguna Prieta, from the east

In the sand dunes before arriving at Laguna Prieta

A PRECARIOUS UNDERTAKING 245

obliterates them. Clodomiro told me the cattle were
driven by him and his companions from Tinaja de los
Papagos in a direct line over the sand dunes, passing
the southern point of Sierra del Viejo, to the small pond
in Sierra de Lechugilla, but they were too weak to reach
the water which is not very accessible. The horses only
could get at it, and a detour for water for the cattle had
to be made to Tinajas Altas. Six days were consumed by
the journey to Laguna Prieta, the majority of the cattle
arriving safely, though every day some dropped behind
to die from thirst. From sunrise to sunset the cattle
walked slowly in single file and scattering to eat wherever
grass appeared. A halt was made at night when the men
watched them. On a later occasion a hundred remained
behind, and at the last undertaking of this kind by other
herdsmen, the whole herd was abandoned near Cerro Pri-
eto, most of them finding their way back to Agva Salada.
For the last three miles before reaching Laguna
Prieta we crossed the western extremity of the sand
dunes, which attain their greatest height here, two or
three of the hills being at least two hundred feet high.
The lake is at the edge of the big dunes on their southern
side, and the comparatively large sheet of water made a
pleasing impression. Just as we descended toward it a
white coyote was observed running away from the shore.
At first sight, we took it for a pelican; my unruly mule
prevented me from getting my field-glass quickly enough,
but the Mexican who rode behind me saw distinctly that
the apparition had four legs. An albino coyote, which
was very shy, was once seen near Caborca,

246 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

Camp was made on a slightly elevated ground near
the shore at the south-west end of the lake. Two large
mezquite trees were growing here; they were rather ab-
ject looking as they had no leaves, but the guide had
seen them with beautiful foliage in the month of May.
Laguna Prieta is a salt water lake, but on the marshy
shore an abundance of fresh water may be found by dig-
ging in the extensive growth of typha latipbolia, popu-
larly called bulrushes, which are thriving here; the Mex-
icans call them tule. At three places the earth had been
dug away so as to make troughs two feet deep, twelve
feet long and six feet wide, which were full of clear water.
Many years ago, I understand, attempts at cattle raising
were made by people from the Colorado River with this
water as base for operations. The water, though slightly
brackish, does not taste bad, but among the Mexicans
of Colonia Lerdo it is reputed to have an ill effect on
horses, as some of them when thirsty have been known
to die from drinking it.

The lake is half a mile long and slightly less than
that distance wide, running from south-west to north-
east. Birds from the sea were swimming in the water
which, according to the guide, becomes very low in
May. The shores are soft and along the south-western
part overgrown with bulrushes and reeds, while on the
northern part the arrowbush is found. Our mules and
horses had had no water to drink for seventy-six hours, so
I remained here a day in order to give them a rest.

In the first evening spent here, Thursday, January
27, Venus on nearing the horizon shone with a reddish

CONTINGENCIES OF THE DESERT 247

twinkling or scintillating light. I do not know whether
this had been the case for some time or not — perhaps
not, for usually in the evenings I cast a few observing
glances around the heavens. The following evening the
planet on approaching the horizon at three or four de-
grees assumed this same color which was very notice-
able when only a couple of degrees above it.

The first day's travel over low sand dunes from La-
guna Prieta was rather heavy, and our horses began to
give out. Fortunately, as we reached a llano toward
sunset, we came upon patches of grass. The only wood
available consisted in old stumps of the curious canu-
tillo {ephedra) which now made its first appearance. It
is one of the lowest types of the flowering plants with
only rudimentary flowers, and in spite of its appearance
is not related to the pines. On account of much resin-
ous matter which it contains, the plant enjoys a great
reputation among Mexicans as a remedy to be taken
internally against a certain contagious disease. Fuel re-
sources being rare on the coast, the canutillo is very
useful for making fire. It burns lustily for a little while,
but as it makes no charcoal, we could not boil beans
by it; tortillas, however, may be made with some little
trouble. I picked up two long-stalked puff balls (bal-
tarea) which were growing in the shade of a chamiso.
They were dry, but the sand was moist around the
roots, two and a half inches below the surface.

Already at El Capitan we had seen rising in the west
a thick column of smoke. The Indians were burning
dry reeds, bushes, and old grass along the Colorado

248 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

River about thirty-five miles away, and it seemed like a
distant greeting. As our party approached the wide
bed of the river, a cloud of smoke from the same source
again appeared as if it were being emitted by a volcano.
We passed through thickets of willows, mezquites, arrow-
bushes, etc., and then among marshes covered with bul-
rushes and reeds. There were also muddy places where
the surface had a thin layer of salitre. We found our-
selves near the great river which starts in distant Wyo-
ming, at an elevation of ten thousand feet, and, after a
tumultuous course of nearly two thousand miles, reaches
the sea through Mexican territory. Early in the after-
noon we arrived at Colonia Lerdo, a very small Mexi-
can settlement on the lower part of the river. Two
miles before reaching this place we had passed a small
river, the so-called Rillito Salado, part of the Colorado
River, which in May and June becomes so large that
boats have to be used for crossing, some of which were
lying on the beach.

It was the end of January and the weather was calm,
clear, and pleasant with a temperature in the warmest
part of the day ranging from 740 to 780 F. in the shade.
Every morning before sunrise the sonorous voices of the
cranes (grus) were heard as flocks of them passed by.
Some mosquitoes and flies were about, and during the
summer these become a pest. Gnats, trying to get into
eyes and ears, are always present here, but they were
not very annoying at that time. From April to Septem-
ber is the season when all such obnoxious insects abound.
The climate is very wholesome.

•SSfv'^K" X-*?*l^5*^Ssi:

Indians burning reeds and grass on the Colorado River

Approaching Laguna Prieta

THE MOUTH OF COLORADO RIVER 249

According to local information, the first settlement
here was in 1872. A Mexican company tried to exploit
the agricultural possibilities of the region with irriga-
tion, as well as those of a certain fibrous plant (sesbania
macrocarpa) that grows in the delta. The enterprise
came to grief, and an American company which later
took the matter up seems to have had no better suc-
cess. If the information conveyed to me is correct, the
notoriously changeable river carried away three colony
sites, the first one situated one mile west of the pres-
ent one, and the second and third were a little nearer
to it; the fourth, and present one consists of two
ranches belonging in reality to one Mexican family
which has survived the various vicissitudes of coloniza-
tion. They raise cattle, wheat, maize, beans, squashes,
and watermelons. The soil is rich and I was told that
one sweet potato grown here weighed twenty-five pounds.
The inhabitants are Mexicans with the pleasant char-
acteristics of this people. Of late years Sr. Sandoval,
the banker of Nogales, had begun to keep cattle on the
river fourteen miles below; there were about four hun-
dred head and they seemed to be doing very well. Be-
sides the grama grass, the sacate Colorado and the
so-called sacate salado, the seeds of which are eaten
by the Indians, furnish pasturage. The cattle will also
eat the leaves of the chamiso bush as well as those of
bulrushes (tule) when green.

It was pleasant to meet at this place an Englishman,
Lord Osborne Beauclerk, who, accompanied by the Can-
adian geologist, Mr. Warburton Pike, had made a boating

250 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

and sporting trip to the upper part of the Gulf of Califor-
nia. Lord Osborne was a much-travelled man who had
visited parts of Asia to shoot mountain-sheep of which
sport he had made a specialty. They were on their way
back to Yuma, and kindly replenished my depleted larder
with rice, sugar, and other articles which were much ap-
preciated.

Only three Indian families were living at Colonia
Lerdo, and they had no cultivated fields. They were
mostly old people and I found them to be Apache Tontos
from Lower California, who intermarry with the Cocopa
Indians, only one of whom was present. There was little
of interest to be gained from an interview with an old
Apache Tonto who lived here with his family. He sold
me his bow which is large and made of willow. Among
the arrows was one without plumes which is used for
killing fish, and with these there was a club of light wood,
colored red with ochre, as also a bunch of hawk and heron
feathers with a rattle from a rattlesnake attached. Two
weeks previously he had killed with a stick twenty large,
fat fish which had been entrapped in a waterhole that was
evaporating. He had dried the fish which smelled very
strongly of rancid oil.

The Cocopa Indians live along the lower part of the
Colorado River, nearly all of them within the boundary
of Mexico, and plant their crops in the fertile river de-
posits. The head-quarters were formerly some miles west
of Colonia Lerdo, between the Hardie and Colorado Rivers.
They are considered by the Mexicans of the Colonia to
be well off, raising wheat, maize, the ordinary brown

COCOPA INDIANS z$1

beans as well as the small white beans called tepari, and
yurimuri, black beans. They own wagons and American
ploughs and are able to sell some maize and watermelons.
Cipriano Dominguez, of Colonia Lerdo, who later served
me as guide, in 1900 took a census of the tribe and es-
timated their number then at one thousand two hundred.
Their principal rancherias to-day are, according to him,
Noche Buena, where about twenty families live, many of
whom seek work at Yuma and return when the river
rises to plant crops; Mexical with some forty to fifty
families, Pescador with fifteen families, and Pozo Vicente,
which is the largest, containing over a hundred families.
Formerly they all lived in Noche Buena, Algodones, Pozo
Vicente, and La Colonia. According to the same inform-
ant, they suffered little damage from the change of the
course of the Colorado River, though on account of it
many went to Pozo Vicente and over thirty families live
in Yuma, working for the Americans.

The Cocopa burn their dead. In case of illness the
patient abstains from food and drink. Persons suspected
of witchcraft are often killed. The tribal name of these
Indians is Xawilkunyavcei, which means: those who live
on the river (xawil, river). They are reputed to be very
hospitable and, to quote the same informant, "They are
the best Indians I know. If a Mexican or American loses
his way, these Indians take care of him, give him food,
and show him the road." The usual diseases acquired
through contact with " civilization " are found in the
tribe, and many die from syphilis. Formerly the Cocopa
were in constant conflict with the Yuma Indians, but they

252 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

were friendly with the Apache Tonto, Maricopa, and
Papago.

Here our animals had a much-needed rest of four days.
One of the horses had to be left, but our mules were all
right, and the burros, with one exception, a young animal,
were in better condition than at the start. On our re-
turn journey along the coast, it was very desirable to
secure a guide, but the one man here, Cipriano Domin-
guez, who knew the coast for some distance, was unfort-
unately away in Lower California with a party of Ameri-
can sportsmen from the Middle West. It was not pos-
sible to wait for his return, which was uncertain, and,
even without a guide, I would have attempted to reach
Pinacate by a new route rather than return in the same
way we had come. As good luck would have it, the man
arrived the day before our departure and was at once en-
gaged to go with us as far as he knew the way. Having
had to walk the last fifteen miles barefoot, he needed a day
in which to recuperate and was to overtake us the next
morning, it being easy to follow our tracks in the sandy
soil. From my experience on the coast journey from here
to Pinacate, I would consider it hazardous to undertake
the trip without a guide on account of the extreme diffi-
culty in discovering where there is water. It is known
to exist only at certain places, some of which it would have
been highly improbable that we should find, in spite of
the directions and descriptions given me by the Indian
medicine-man in Quitovaquita. Besides water is, as a
rule, found on the coast only by digging for it, and there
may be no indication of its presence except to one long ex-

A NECESSARY ADJUNCT 253

perienced in finding it. A spade is an essential part of
the explorer's outfit for this trip. We saw tracks of a
man on horseback who had travelled along close to the
beach. He may have been a runaway from justice who,
according to the opinions of the Mexicans with me, must
have finally perished for lack of water.

In the afternoon a fire started in the dry reeds and
grass on the other side of the former bed of the river
where our animals were in good pasture, and we were
obliged to bring them over to our side. A strong gale
from the south-west increased the fire in magnitude and
fierceness, and in the evening it threatened to destroy the
houses of the Indians, when suddenly a change of wind to
a northerly direction brought relief, and the fire died away
after a few hours. The Indians no doubt had made it
purposely, for they were just at this time busily engaged
in such work all along the river, in the usual Indian be-
lief that smoke produces rain and clouds.

CHAPTER XVI

TRAVELLING ALONG THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA— DELIGHTFUL
CLIMATE— KILLING A PORPOISE— FISHING— FRESH WATER ON
THE BEACH— UNATTRACTIVE DRINKING WATER— FINE VIEWS
—A GREAT SALT DEPOSIT— EXTRAORDINARY OCCURRENCE OF
SPRINGS— HARD TRAVEL— THE PAPAGO SALT EXPEDITIONS-
WORSHIP OF THE SEA

We passed a swamp known locally under the name of
El Doctor, where fresh water is found by digging a couple
of feet down among the bulrushes. On a low sandy
bluff which rises a few feet above the swamp, a jacal had
been erected, and near this our guide and his brother
once experimented with the agricultural possibilities of
the sand, water being carried from the swamp; beans,
maize, squashes, and watermelons gave very satisfactory
results. The marsh is on the edge of a great playa that
runs south-east of the river down to the sea, the eastern
limit of the delta. We followed the edge of the playa
until we reached the sea, travelling most of the time on
high ground and afterward along the bases of desiccated
sand cliffs.

Salitre frequently covers small plains of soft soil.
There was no trail to follow, though an American auto-
mobile from Yuma once tried to reach what is called the
"harbor" of Santa Clara. The automobile had to be
abandoned at the edge of the playa at a camping place
of the same name, the Americans walking thence on foot.
From the "harbor" which, according to our guide, is

254

THE DELTA OF THE RIVER 255

twenty-five feet deep, runs a narrow and shallow inlet
or slough, passing the camp of Santa Clara and extend-
ing some twenty-five miles beyond, the sea at high tide
coming up that far. Before arriving at this camp one
may obtain a fine view of some of the river delta by going
to the edge of the bluff of sand cliffs which began a few
miles east of El Doctor and farther on rises for a hundred
feet or more above the playa. The many clumps of bul-
rushes {f ul ares) observed from there growing down on the
great mud-flat near the edges are a curious feature. On
account of the action of the wind these isolated clumps
of coarse plants look half conical in shape. According
to my guide they all contain fresh water. Tracks led
to some of them, the cattle having learned that water
should be sought here. At the foot of the bluff, before
arriving at Santa Clara, there is a spring of tepid water,
and the cattle drink this too, though it contains some
sulphur.

If my guide is correct, at very high tides the sea
washes over most of this playa, which is sixteen miles wide
at the mouth of the river, but fresh water may still be
found where the bulrushes grow. In digging among them
the water at the surface may be salty, but two or three
feet lower it is found to be fresh; he said that such is
always the case and my own experience on this expedition
confirms it. In our camp at Santa Clara on the edge of
the playa, it was a novel sight to behold fresh water where
the ground all around was covered with a deposit of
salitre as white as new fallen snow. There were small
salt water lagoons near by, but bulrushes were also grow-

256 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

ing, and when a hole two and a half feet deep had been
made in the sandy mud near the big plants, good water,
insignificantly brackish, gradually seeped in. The cacha-
nilla, or arrowbush, is also considered to be a good sign
of water.

On the playa were hundreds of coyote tracks. Several
robins appeared near our waterhole during the afternoon.
Thousands of old sea-shells covered the surface along the
lower parts of the sand ridges which were fifteen or twenty
feet higher than the playa. I had frequently observed
sea-shells through the western part of the desert on the
ground at a considerable distance from the coast; they
were found to an extent which makes it seem unlikely that
they could have been carried there by the Indians. Near
La Nariz and at La Salada fragments of dosinia ponderosa
were encountered.

On reaching the beach we found driftwood lying about
in the shape of trunks and branches of cotton-wood and
willow, which the river had carried along in its course to
the sea. Several specimens of plants in flower were seen
on the low sand dunes near the beach, among them
another a trichocalyx. At times we turned off and up onto
these low sand-hills, but we were never over a mile from
the sea, during the first part of our journey, and usually
less. It was the first week of February, and the weather
was altogether delightful, remaining almost calm for
several days. The temperature was pleasantly warm,
from 6o° to 700 F. about noon, and at night it would fall
as low as 310 F, though it did not feel as cold as that.
One afternoon some nimbus clouds appeared in the west

o ^

THE ENCHANTING SEA 257

against the intensely blue sky; rain fell from some of them,
but it evaporated before it reached half-way down to the
sea.

Our first camp on the Gulf was made among the sand
dunes a few yards from the beach itself. A porpoise had
inadvertently become entrapped here as the tide receded,
and Alberto, who was with the pack train ahead of me,
discovered it splashing near the sea. Actuated by the
savage desire to kill everything that is alive, which most
human beings have, he approached it and murdered it
with a shot from his pistol. The blood, according to his
description, spouted forth like a fountain, and one shot
was sufficient. When the sun was setting three flocks of
cranes passed us flying westward, the last flock number-
ing about a hundred.

The next day for nearly three miles at a stretch we
followed a lovely beach, the ripples of the sea often wash-
ing lazily over the horses' hoofs, while a soft breath of air
was wafted from the south-west. The big horse of Clodo-
miro, who rode beside me, stopped often to try to drink
from the sea, so he dismounted, unfastened the bridle, and
let it judge the water for itself. A great many curlews
were walking on the mud-flats and sea-gulls were about,
but all seemed to be somewhat on their guard against us.
As the tide came in great numbers of fish began to sport
at the edge of the water, often jumping out of it, especially
around the small rocky promontories.

By common impulse we stopped at a promising place
in order to replenish our larder from that wealth of ani-
mal life. To be sure, dynamiting is very poor sport, but

258 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

under such conditions as the present ones, where one
could not afford to waste any time in the securing of
needed provisions, it seemed permissible to use this rough
but ready way. After the small explosions the men
eagerly ran out up to their waists and caught with their
hands the dead or stupefied fish, throwing them ashore,
and one of them gathered big, fat mullets in his straw hat.
The result was thirty-one excellent fish, all of the same
kind, which provided us with superb food for several days.
The upper part of the Gulf abounds in fish. Our new
guide told me that on his recent expedition with the Amer-
icans he had caught about a thousand fish in one of the
ancient stone enclosures of the Indians constructed for
this purpose. He repaired the corral and during one
night this great number was entrapped. The Americans,
however, not wanting so many, threw half of them back
into the sea.

Later in the afternoon our animals had a much needed
drink from a spring on the beach itself, only a hundred
yards from the sand cliffs. Nobody would suspect fresh
water here, and its discovery by Cipriano was due to the
actions of a coyote excavating to reach it. The water
showed no movement and the spring is covered by the
tide. In a similar manner fresh water is found on the
beach of Puerto de Libertad, to which people from Cab-
orca and Altar go in the early summer. There at low
tide the men come with spades to water their animals.

That night we spent behind a low ridge of sand dunes
at a place which our guide had named Tornillal, after a
number oftornillos, screw-bean trees (prosopis pubescens),

LONELINESS AND DESOLATION 259

growing there. The screw-beans, which are considered by
the Mexicans to have as much nutritive value as oats, are
eaten by mules and donkeys, but rarely by horses. The
Indians eat them toasted and ground into a pinole. We
made camp on a patch of clear level ground which on
account of its clayish consistency was cracked with deep
furrows. In spite of a light cover of salitre which ap-
peared in many places, there was still among the surround-
ing sand-hills enough grass for our animals, although in
the coast country this was more scarce than before.
Quails were running about on the dune back of our camp,
and the singing of other birds was heard, but the place
was not attractive. The presence of screw-bean trees, at
that time without leaves, and of such bushes as the qua-
viri and the chamiso did not help to relieve the impres-
sion of loneliness and desolation of the landscape. The
sand people used to camp here on fishing expeditions or
on their way to the Colorado River, and I was curious to
see where fresh water was to be found. Cipriano pointed
out a shallow hole in the dry, clayish soil, under an arrow-
bush; there water had been found before, and by digging
down four feet deeper we discovered some, but it was
unusually repulsive, dark-brown in color though fairly
clear, and smelling of sulphuretted hydrogen, very salt,
and as bitter as any medicinal mineral water. Its color
was possibly due to the screw-beans, as I later on saw the
earth black underneath these trees.

It was the worst water used on our expedition; but
it did fairly well, with Liebig's extract, which requires
much salt, and under the circumstances we were glad to

26o NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

fill our barrels with it. Only one of us was ill for a few
days from its effect. We worked our way up to the top
of the cliffs, consisting of a clayey calcareous sand, which
attain here a height of from one hundred and fifty to two
hundred feet, and arrived at a hard sand mesa. A flat,
extensive country now presented itself to our view; across
it to the north is seen the picturesque Sierra del Rosario
among the sand dunes, while in front to the east north-
east Pinacate rises dark and gloomy in the distance. To
the east are seen two large stretches of sand dunes and
also one to the north-east. The vast expanse of land, not
quite level, with its stunted growth of bluish-gray chamiso,
yellowish-green greasewood, and tufts of green galleta
grass reminded me of certain flats one occasionally meets
with in the Norwegian highlands. We followed an old
Indian track along the edge of the mesa, sometimes pass-
ing only a few yards from the steep descent of the sand
cliffs to the beach, where two black pelicans were seen.
At noon a dense, snow-white fog filled the Gulf, reaching
up to our elevation. Above it in the west rose the blue
sierra of Lower California, the highest point discernible
being San Pedro Martiro. As the cliffs became lower
we again descended to the beach where we camped among
the sand dunes. The deep blue sky was clear, but the
humidity in the evening was very great, and all our things
felt wet. It was pleasant to be lulled to sleep by the sound
of the lazy waves against the beach, which awakened, I
do not know why, memories of a trip to that charming
spot, Bar Harbor, in Maine.

A distance of only three miles inland, but necessi-

SALINA GRANDE 261

tating laborious travel over sand dunes, brought us to
the largest salina in that part of the country. As soon
as the top of the dunes is reached, a very small one
is discovered, about a quarter of a mile in diameter,
and near by is an arm of the large one, reaching toward
the south-west within a mile and a half from the sea.
This salt deposit has sometimes been called Salina
Grande, which may be accepted as its name. Surrounded
by sand dunes of medium size, it appears to be from
twenty to thirty feet above sea-level. It is two miles
long at its greatest length, running south-west and north-
east, the south-western end being quite narrow. It is
three-quarters of a mile wide at its broadest part, and
this breadth is maintained for at least half a mile, where
the most valuable part of it is. Walking across it, I
found the salt hard and beautifully white, and the middle
section appeared deep. This salina has been visited by
few people, among them Sr. Jose Y. Tapia, the mining
surveyor of Altar, who, as most people, entered from the
Pinacate region. He calculated that it contained seven
million tons of salt. I understand that a French com-
pany, which for some years worked a gold mine, after-
ward abandoned, near Caborca, also examined this de-
posit. Much fresh water is present and some day, when
railroad communication shall have been established, the
Salina Grande will prove to be of great commercial value.
As Cipriano Dominguez did not know the road any
further, he returned to his home, and we spent the day
here where the animals had good water and a rest, while
the interesting physico-geographical conditions of the

262 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

region occupied my attention. A peculiar feature is the
prevalence of fresh water springs on the flat northern
shore of the salina; a few of them unite and form a
small, gently running stream which disappears into the
salt. In the two mornings of our stay herons were
standing in line like grenadiers, along this little fresh
water flow. The somewhat circular clusters of bul-
rushes scattered on the northern shore at the widest part
of the salina were as usual indications of fresh water,
but here the water was in sight. Moreover, it was pres-
ent in remarkable circular reservoirs of greater or less
regularity of shape, the best preserved ones, stripped
of their plant growth, resembling small shallow craters,
most of which were filled by a hill in the middle.

A rim surrounded the depression about the hill where
fresh water is found. Bulrushes covered the little hill
and in most cases also the depression, or at least parts of
it. The composition of the reservoir was the same as
that of the shore or playa — sand with an apparent mixt-
ure of clay. These curious springs numbered sixteen;
not all equally distinct in their formation, but in the main
features their similarity could usually be traced. The
Mexicans had the convenient word pozo (well, waterhole)
for this peculiar. formation.

I examined eight of these, all of different sizes and
recognizable at a distance by their growths of bulrushes.
The one which was nearest the sand dunes and at which
we were camped was a hundred feet in diameter; the
sand heap in the middle was five feet high, and the rim
a foot and a half. The little hill was densely covered with

A pozo at Sauna Grande, seen from the east

The rim is plain; most of our animals are standing inside of it. Screwbean trees and bulrushes on the inside hill

The same pozo, seen from the west

Our camp is a few feet from the fresh water of the depression

Sauna Grande in its northern part, showing many of the pozos or tulares

CURIOUS SPRINGS 263

bulrushes and the depression also, but to a less extent.
An abundance of fresh water, only slightly salt, could be
seen among the plants and there was no necessity for using
the spade to get at it. Other pozos were twenty feet in
diameter, with a depression two feet deep. The largest
of them was located a couple of hundred yards from
our camp, farther out on the shore or playa. This was
about two hundred feet in diameter and had a remark-
ably regular rim, three-quarters of which rose three feet
above the playa, the rest being lower. This contained
more water than any of those visited and looked like
an overgrown pond; the water here was quite nice to
the taste and only negligibly salt.

One of these pozos was still further out, actually in
the salt bed, where the soft salt cover became more
solid, and here the water was perfectly fresh. One
small pozo which contained much water had no hill in
the middle. An extraordinary feature of these forma-
tions was that water actually may be found on top of
the sand heap in the middle. Climbing up one of them
which was unusually high, about ten feet, I found that a
coyote had scratched a hole four feet above the depres-
sion, and this was filled with water. The sand on top
was mixed with some black vegetable matter and was
extremely moist; a small hole I scooped out with my
hand was immediately filled with fresh water. I sup-
pose these curious formations in the sandy soil of the
shore are due to the action of water that at one time
must have been stronger than now. There is no moun-
tain range nearer than the isolated Sierra del Rosario,

264 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

thirty-five miles to the north. Sand dunes are still char-
acteristic of the country for miles further on. It seems
as if the presence of so much fresh water here must pre-
suppose its existence underneath the western area of the
desert of the District of Altar and extending perhaps up
into southern Arizona.

Besides two kinds of bulrushes (typha, in Spanish
tule), some arrowbushes are found growing over the
reservoirs and the latter looked more intensely green
than usual. In the depressions grew also the grass
called sacate salado, and sometimes also screw-bean
trees, a considerable number of which are present on
the north-eastern part of the shore where the little fresh
water stream originates. A plant (anemonopsis calijor-
nica) called by the Mexicans herba del manso was a
singular growth in these pozos. Its large root, which has
a strong medicinal scent, like that which characterizes
an apothecary shop, is perhaps the most popular of the
many favorite remedies of northern Mexico. It is used
internally to cure colds, coughs, or indigestion, as well as
externally for wounds or swellings, and is employed in
a similar way by the Indians. Of the latter, those who
lived in the dune country are said to have been in the
habit of chewing bits of this root, as elsewhere tobacco is
chewed. These plants grew here in great numbers and to
enormous proportions; some of their roots were as much
as three feet long and very heavy. The root finds a ready
sale everywhere and my Mexicans were not long in
gathering as many of the plants as they could carry on
their animals. One of the men, whose horse was well-

A POZO AT THE EDGE OF SALINA GRANDE
In the foreground, visible in part, rim, fresh water, and hill. The trees are screwbeans.

■

*"*

A pozo at Salina Grande

Inside hill, burned over, appears in central part. On top of hill fresh water was found

BEAUTIFUL SAND FORMATIONS 265

nigh exhausted, walked himself in order to put a load
of fifty pounds on his horse.

Animal life seemed scarce here, though two ravens
darted repeatedly with angry cries toward my white
terrier, as if they wanted to strike him for daring to
compete with them in the food market, and he rose
each time and snapped at them. Lizards and some
species of rodents seem to be the most conspicuous
fauna in the dunes.

No one of my party knew the road to the Salina del
Pinacate, another smaller salt deposit, where the next
water would be found, but as our animals had been in
pasture with good water to drink, we felt no anxiety
about the journey. It turned out to be extremely fa-
tiguing travel, however, the animals working all the time
in the deep, soft sand, up and down the dunes. We fol-
lowed the crests as much as possible, which were some-
what harder and afforded the best means for progress.
It was the heaviest work of the expedition. Usually the
dunes formed large, irregular waves of no great height
but once, in a limited area, we came across some big
ones. We passed some beautiful formations of sand
made by the action of the wind, which were like ter-
races or fortifications extending one above the other.

We camped without water. The next day, about
half-way to the salina, as we followed the higher part
of the large sand dunes near the slough which under
the name of Estero del Tule runs northward, Clodo-
miro and I came across an old Indian camping place.
It was about three hundred yards from the slough, be-

266 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

hind some high sand-hills on which a few mezquites were
growing. As I stopped to take my bearings we no-
ticed some pieces of wood that had been cut by an axe
long ago, an unmistakable sign of human activity. Per-
haps this had been done by the lonely Indian of Pina-
cate mentioned before. Fifty or a hundred yards from
there, on a bit of level ground, between the sand-hills,
which was covered with large chamiso bushes and sa-
caton grass, about fifty quails suddenly started forth
and enlivened the lonesome landscape with their defiant
notes. Shortly afterward we came upon a deep and
narrow excavation that led down to water, the existence
of which is known only to the Indians and one Mexican
who gave it the name of Pozo del Cahallo, from the skel-
eton of a horse he found there. Considerable work with
a spade would have been necessary to make the water
accessible for our animals, and there was no reason to
call back our pack train which was in advance of us, so
we continued our journey, striking a well-marked Ind-
ian trail which leads northward. Small level places were
covered with salitre, and the whiteness of the slough,
which we followed for six miles, was almost blinding to
our eyes.

The slough finally became quite narrow, only twenty
yards across, and making many curves and windings.
After having passed two of these we found our pack train
waiting for us to decide in which direction to proceed.
The Pinacate salt deposit, which we were endeavoring to
reach, could not now be far off, but neither Clodomiro
nor one of the Mexicans who had visited it recognized the

A CRITICAL POSITION 267

locality, having approached it from the direction oppo-
site to that with which they were acquainted. Clodomiro,
smarting perhaps under the feeling of having to be guide
without — through no fault of his — knowing that part
of the country, undertook to direct us and, leaving the
slough which now ran easterly, led us up on sand dunes
that seemed particularly merciless to our animals after
their very hard day's travel. One of the horses had to be
left behind after a short time. It was five o'clock in the
afternoon, the sun would soon set, and further marching
in the dunes seemed aimless. Why not follow the slough
that appeared to run in the same direction ? There was
no time to waste, so following my impulse I led the ex-
pedition down to the slough again. A march of an hour
more brought us to the salina which we did not recognize
at first. It appeared that the very slough we came by was
part of it, but, being covered with white salitre, it did not
reveal the whereabouts of the salt deposit until, just as
darkness set in, we arrived at some shallow water be-
tween thin layers of salt, roseate in color.

Our thirsty animals hurried into it, to be sadly disap-
pointed, for it was all salt. A few minutes' further travel
along the edges brought to our attention small heaps of
earth that had been thrown up on the beach. This was
the work of men who had been there to get salt, and we
hailed it with delight, for there they had dug for water.
To be sure the water was not very fresh, and two of my
men as well as two of the mules declined it. However,
I knew better water could be found by digging deeper,
which at that time we were too tired to do, and I congrat-

268 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

ulated myself on having saved the expedition from pos-
sible disaster. Next morning, by digging six feet deep,
fairly good water was procured on the beach of the salt
deposit. The two mules which were so particular had
been without water for over seventy-two hours.

We spent one day here recuperating and trying to
collect the three animals, two of them donkeys, which we
had been obliged to leave behind, but in this we were only
partially successful. Our horses were in a bad way; these
animals, however patient, are not serviceable for such a
trip, as they are too fastidious about their food and water.
A horse prefers not to eat rather than to try food he does
not know. In fact, only two of them reached Sonoita
again, and this was accomplished only through the heroic
efforts of their owners, one of them walking almost all
the time from Colonia Lerdo and the other keeping up
his horse's strength with a sack of oats which he had
succeeded in securing there. They were large, splendid
looking animals at the start, but, as my guide said and as
is generally true, "the horse that enters the medanos never
comes back." Even my riding mule began to show signs
of fatigue.

The salt deposit is at a bend of the slough, and is only
about a quarter of a mile long, some two hundred yards
broad, and is apparently shallow. The salt is found in
layers; along the water edge it is rose-colored and in the
central part quite hard and fairly free from impurities.
The sea, which is three miles off, is said by the Indians to
reach here twice a year. This salina is interesting only
because it has from time immemorial yielded the main

GOING AFTER SALT 269

supply of salt for the Papago Indians, who still come here
even from as far away as the Gila River. A few Mexicans
also, of outlying places such as Quitovac and Sonoita,
obtain this commodity from here. The main route fol-
lowed by the Indians passes over Quitovaquita, Tinaja
del Cuervo, and La Soda, and there is also a trail from
the Tinaja del Cuervo direct to Quitovac.

Guadalupe pointed out to me the place where the
Indian expeditions camp among the greasewood bushes
close to the shore. He also showed me where the Indians,
before attempting to gather the salt, had their ceremonial
race on the deposit, running four times either forward and
backward or one side up and the other down. He him-
self has been too much with Mexicans to consider any
ceremony necessary for fetching salt, but at Chujubabi,
where he often lives, he has seen Papagoes pass on their
way to another deposit on the coast, called San Jorge,
fifty miles from there.

Leaving their horses at the foot of the range of Chu-
jubabi, the Indians would run on foot up the hills, nude
but for a cloth around the loins and a ribbon tied around
the head. Reaching the top, they would stop in a line all
looking toward the distant salt, and every one would make
a waving motion with the right hand, from out in toward
the chest, one time only, and then they would descend
again. The old men are left in charge watching the ani-
mals so that they do not drink water until the return of
their owners. There is no water from there to San Jorge,
the distance being covered by the Indians in a day and
a half. This salina, which is said to be only a couple of

270 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

hundred meters in diameter and at long intervals covered
by the sea, is still popular also with many Papagoes north
of the boundary line. Their expeditions pass La Nariz,
Espuma, and Chujubabi, and the time to go there is in
April and October. Sometimes there is no salt found,
when those Indians who are in the habit of visiting there
come to the Pinacate salina.

The expeditions to the salt deposit, where we had our
present camp, used to consist of thirty or forty men — "as
many as when going to fight the Apaches," to use the ex-
pression of the most prominent leader of these expeditions
to-day, whom I met at Santa Rosa in Arizona. In this
case, however, they are all unarmed. On the road to
and from the salina the Indians eat and drink very little,
their only food being pinole, a handful to each, three times
a day, eaten in the morning before the start, at noon, and
in the afternoon. It is mixed with water, and whatever
little may stick to the cup after its contents have been
eaten is buried in a hole made in the ground. Nobody
drinks water without permission; they wait until the
leader tells them to do so, and drink only when told to
stop on the march. The party travels very silently,
only elderly men who have undertaken the journey
before talk, and nobody turns around either on the
journey out or on the return. No member of the
expedition can scratch himself unless he uses for the
purpose a special implement made from a twig of the
greasewood.

In the evenings going and coming they receive instruc-
tions from the leader concerning the care that must be

ANCIENT CUSTOMS 271

taken both in the gathering and loading of the salt as well
as in ceremonies and sacrifices. They smoke tobacco and
they all pray to the sun and the sea for health, long life,
and for rain.

Only toward midnight do they go to sleep. The leader
carries with him six small sticks, pointed at one end, but
without the usual plumes, to deposit in different localities,
one in each of the two places where water is found on the
long trip, one at an ancient waterhole, one in the salt,
one "where the sea used to be," and another is thrown
into the sea, which sometimes does not accept it if there
is menstruation in the leader's house. He has also three
cobs of corn of abnormal growth, flat and deformed and
called by the Indians "flat-head corn." The first even-
ing on the road he takes grains from these, four each
time, chews them, and then spits into the mouth of every
horse to make it strong. Some meal ground from the
same kind of corn-cobs is carried along to be sacrificed to
the sea.

They arrive early in the day. After having hobbled
their horses each man takes off his clothing and places a
breech cloth around his loins, and they all walk in a line
down to the salt, the leader following, carrying a prayer-
stick. Those who have not been there before run four
times in the slough over the salt deposit, the others twice.
Quite a distance is covered and some do not return until
nightfall. When my informant, the old leader, was young,
he used to run on such occasions what would be equivalent
to sixteen miles. When the race is over every one rubs his
chest, arms, legs, face, and hair with salt and then has his

272 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

handful of pinole, whereupon the salt is spread out to
dry. The party next moves down to the sea; going into
it up to their knees, each man carries corn-meal in his
left hand and, watching for the waves, throws one pinch
of it, caught with all fingers, on each of four successive
waves. He bends forward when a high one comes lest it
might throw him on his back, which is a bad thing as it
would make him ill. They do not indulge in any sea
bathing, for the ocean is too clean to allow them to soil
it, they reverently say.

Toward sunset the salt is gathered in sacks, about
one hundred pounds in each, two of these making a
load. Great care is taken that no salt be spilled on the
road as this would bring about some misfortune. Every-
one takes back with him a piece of silicious sponge which
is found on the beach and which is kept carefully from
year to year. This is considered a good remedy for ex-
ternal use. But the leader may take a bite of it, chew
it, fill his mouth with water, and spray this through his
lips on the men. Members of a salt expedition learn new
songs on the trip and they say they dream them while
asleep. Among the gifts of the sea may be a beautiful
wife, luck in hunting, or swiftness in foot-races. After
their return they must stay away from their houses
from ten to sixteen days. A good deal of their time
is spent in singing to the accompaniment of rasping
sticks, and after having taken a bath every fourth day
the man is able to join his wife again. According to ac-
counts of fifty years ago* the Papagoes supplied Tucson

* See California Notes, Fourth Series, in California Farmer, 1863.

Beautiful effects of wind and sand, north-west of Pozo del Caballo

The Pinacate salt deposit

Papago salt expeditions camp between the two clumps of greasewood to the left and in the middle

INDIAN SALT 273

and a mining company with thousands of pounds of salt
annually. This was undoubtedly brought from this Pin-
acate deposit. Much of the salt used to be exchanged for
wheat with the Pimas.

CHAPTER XVII

A PEACEFUL DAY— TRAGEDY IX THE WILDERNESS— OUR ANIMALS
BEGINNING TO GIVE IN— A PROMISING SODA DEPOSIT— LAST
CAMP ON THE BEACH— AMONG THE SAND DUNES— SIERRA
BLANCA— THE MOUTH OF THE SONOITA RI\T;R— EL CHARCO—
PRONGHORN ANTELOPES— MEETING WITH INDIANS— RETURN
TO SONOITA

Saturday, February 12, was as peaceful and quiet
as any sunny Sabbath day of the wilds. Though the
water was yellowish and smelt of sulphur, it furnished
me a refreshing "tub." From the top of the sand dunes
above my camp there was a fine view of the landscape,
which resembled a mountainous country covered with
snow. Down among the low sand-hills near the salina
three coyotes came along, escaping my camera only on ac-
count of the presence of my dog. Never have I seen any
other region that harbored so many of them. They evi-
dently foraged on the beach all night long, and in the day-
time they would pass in pairs over the salt lake, remind-
ing one of wolves on snow fields. Three of them came
up to our kitchen.

Alberto, in looking for a donkey left behind, struck
an Indian trail which led straight across the slough that
we had followed northward the preceding day, and re-
ported that the ground was fairly hard, except on the
edges, where his animals sank up to their bellies. Prob-
ably, therefore, we should have arrived more easily by

making our way directly across the slough.

274

AN INHOSPITABLE REGION 275

Clodomiro and another Mexican, who had been to
the coast trying to get fish, brought back a somewhat
ghastly souvenir in the shape of a human scapula. On
the beach, east of the mouth of the slough of the salina
and above the reach of the tide, they had come across
an old sailing boat, half buried in the sand. There were
remains of red paint on it and the mast was still there
intact. Very little sand was inside of it, and here they
found the osseous remains of a man, the head missing,
remnants of a gray felt hat, pieces of black cloth, a can
containing baking powder, and two bottles. They were
of the opinion that this man had been an American and
that the disaster must have happened perhaps ten years
ago.

Our start the next morning was characteristic of the
inhospitable region where I found myself. One of the
remaining horses was so weak that he had to be helped
onto his feet, another horse barely walked without sad-
dle, and my riding mule had diarrhoea. Our progress
over the sand dunes was slow and tedious, but after
six hours' journey we reached our next destination, La
Soda, where fairly good water was found in two shallow
holes that had been dug near some bulrushes on the
shore of a soda deposit.

La Soda is a deposit of carbonate of soda, one and a
half miles long and half a mile wide, running from east
to west. The valuable part of it is three-quarters of a
mile long and about three hundred yards wide. Low
sand dunes separate it from the sea, which is two or
three miles off. An American company some years ago

276 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

started to exploit the deposit, but the attempt was aban-
doned, perhaps on account of the difficulty of communi-
cation, which has to be by sea without there being, as
far as I could ascertain, any suitable harbor. Wood for
fuel is not found here. For our camp fire we used green
chamiso bushes and a bush called sosa, a species of
suceda, the ashes of which are used by Mexicans in the
manufacture of soap; the donkeys also eat it.

Mexicans who occasionally pass here on their way to
the Pinacate salt deposit usually stop a day to kill fish
by dynamite in the sea which is near by. The fish are
salted and dried. Several flocks of cranes passed after
sunset westward bound, probably for the Colorado
River. Some quails and doves were observed and in
the morning a mocking-bird sang beautifully, but noth-
ing seemed to be able to dispel the gloomy impression of
the landscape.

We started eastward in a chilly northern wind of
varying force, which made the atmosphere opaque with
sand and salitre, darkening the horizon and hiding even
Pinacate from view. As we travelled over an apparently
indefinite number of sloughs all covered with a thin
layer of salitre, clouds of this stuff would sometimes
whirl along and envelop us as if in white smoke. It
was a relief to arrive again at the beach which lay before
us in a straight line eastward. After a few miles' travel
we reached an old Indian camping place, La Choya, a
translation of the Indian name of the same meaning and
derived from clusters of the formidable spiny cacti which
is found near by among the low sandy ridges. They

CHOYAS OF THE COAST 277

seemed to be different from the two or three species com-
prised under the name choya, smaller and browner in
color, and may possibly be another species.

A small low sand dune separated our camp by a
hundred yards from the beach. There is little pasture
here, and there was nothing from which to make a camp
fire except driftwood. Several ocotillos made their fa-
miliar appearance on top of the low sand ridges, and near
our camp were a few quaviri bushes; some very small
chamiso, evidently another species, and some dusky sosa
bushes completed the list of conspicuous vegetation here.

There was no doubt about the spot where water was
to be found. A large hole had been excavated on the
little plain on which we made camp and heaps of earth
mixed with thousands of sea-shells had been thrown up,
but it must have been some time ago, for there was no
water in sight except at the bottom of a deep burrow
which had been made at one side by the coyotes. We soon
uncovered water, however, but it was strongly brackish.

Four or five miles farther east on the beach two hills
loomed up on the horizon and at that distance appeared
as two islands, perhaps a mile long each, situated close
to the beach. The nearer may be connected with the
main-land and is probably a rocky promontory, at least
at low water. Sand dunes could plainly be discerned
there, and this was where the sand Papagoes used to
kill sea lions (in Spanish lobos). The other may be ac-
cessible from this one at low tide.

From here I turned inland toward the so-called
Sierra Blanca, which is south-east of Pinacate, making

278 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

for a point midway between its southern extension and
a row of three large sand dunes that rose at some dis-
tance in front of us. Though the air was opaque from
floating sand, it often cleared and revealed the pictu-
resque sierra which appeared from the coast much higher
than it is in reality. The distance to it is only fifteen
miles in a straight line and the landscape presents a
vista entirely of sand. For the first two miles the dunes
look like large, low waves running in the general direc-
tion from north to south. They are each half a mile to
a mile long and only from twenty to fifty feet high, and
they are smooth looking as less action of the wind is
noticeable here. The vegetation is mainly greasewood
and canutillo.

For the next four miles the sand ridges were some-
what higher and showed much wind action, as they
consist of a great number of small hills, ranging from
five to forty feet high, the largest ridges being seventy to
eighty feet high. The same vegetation is found on these
hills and in addition mezquite trees grow in clumps at
the tops, and on account of the absence of leaves looked
as if they were dead. It was a pleasant surprise to find
in this belt, in the middle of February, a lovely flora
consisting mainly of Oenothera trichocalyx with its large
white flowers and also a yellow species. For a couple
of miles I saw thousands of them in bunches clothing the
small slopes and valleys between the lower sand ridges as
if planted in a park. The light green, healthy, and juicy
looking plants made me feel as though I had been sud-
denly transported to other regions less arid than these.

AMONG THE SAND-HILLS 279

The next three miles contained some sand ridges of
smooth appearance, but there were no flowers, though
the usual vegetation prevailed.

The last five miles consisted of more or less barren
sand-hills, the largest of which had been noticed from the
coast running westward like huge waves, each approxi-
mately one hundred and seventy-five feet in height and
less than a mile in length. These form the beginning of
the big bare sand dunes which run in a belt toward La-
guna Prieta about three miles wide. We passed to the
right of the first one and camped behind it. A stiff wind
from the north had been blowing through the day and it
felt chilly, although a temperature of 550 F. at sunset was
not particularly low; still, as we camped at six o'clock
we found it agreeable to draw near the fire.

During the night a fresh gale from the north-west
sprang up and filled all my things with sand. For three
days it had not been possible to change the films of my
cameras on account of the sand that was flying about.
It worked its way disagreeably into rifles and instruments,
but did not do any damage, as it was clean and easily
shaken out. Clodomiro and I had followed an hour or
less after the rest of the party and we had occasion to ob-
serve how astonishingly quickly a wind of even moderate
force obliterates tracks.

Emerging from the dunes, one is suddenly confronted
at their edge with a full view of Sierra Blanca which, as its
name implies, is of a very light granite color; the Indians
too, in their language, call it the "white range." A huge
lava flow from Pinacate separates it from the dunes and

28o NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

follows it almost to its southern point. Isolated specimens
of the white brittle bush grew in great numbers over the
dark sheet of lava in front of us, giving at first sight the
impression of being spots of ashes on a large field of burnt
grass. We had last seen this bush at El Capitan. All
along the base of the sierra there appears a narrow strip
of verdure, consisting of palo verde, palo fierro, and the
usual vegetation of such localities. A lonely sahuaro,
the first seen since leaving the Gila Range, stood on a
hill-top. Though no water is found on the western side
of Sierra Blanca, the vegetation of the standy strip along
the base of the range sheltered by the lava flow is luxuriant.
Close to my tent toloache {datura) was in flower, and a
creeper with lots of small leaves that smelled like mint
when crushed attracted unusual attention from our ani-
mals.

There was an abundance of grass here, but our ani-
mals had to be taken to water twelve miles away at Ti-
naja del Cuervo. Accompanied by Clodomiro, I examined
this small and steep mountain range, which has not before
been explored, ascending it in three places; its height is
only about one thousand five hundred feet above the
llano, and its crest is as narrow as any of those in that
western region; a stone can be thrown from one side to
the other of the ridge. The mountain-sheep have a well-
beaten path along the entire crest, although it would be
difficult for a man to pass over the middle section. We
saw a gray fox in its lair near the top.

Loose rocks and stones, which in a time long past had
tumbled down from above, fill the gorges or arroyos that

A CONSPICUOUS WATER COURSE 281

descend from the sierra. No soil is in sight here and it
is almost incredible that any plant life could strike root,
but, in spite of this, whatever grows is in a thriving
condition. The steep gorges were filled with a pleasant
aroma from the brittle bush and sangrengado, and the
ocotillo was in evidence in the lower parts, all serving
as food for the always fat-looking mountain-sheep. Also
a few greasewoods, choyas, and century plants are seen
here and there among the mountains, which, however,
impress one as being barren of vegetation, except in the
arroyos, and such is the case with all sierras of the desert
region.

Standing on top of the southern part of the sierra, one
sees toward the north and the east a large llano with
greasewood growth that extends as far as the low sierras
of Agua Salada. Sierra de San Francisco, nearly twenty-
five miles across, is directly opposite us, and to the east
Sierra Pinta, perhaps eighteen miles away, looms up.
There are no sand dunes to interrupt the flatness of this
llano; the ground is hard and easy to travel over and the
soil is good for agricultural purposes.

The most interesting sight from this lofty point of
vantage was the course of the Sonoita River, which even
to the naked eye is conspicuous on account of the green
growth of mezquites that follow its banks. It is unneces-
sary to recall the fact that most of what is called the
Sonoita River has no water except immediately after
heavy showers. It has been supposed that the Sonoita
River never reaches the sea, but I may state here that
such is not the case, as it does occasionally carry its

282 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

capricious waters to the Gulf. Through my field-glass I
could make out distinctly its course as it passes a couple
of miles this side of some isolated small hills, Los Cerri-
tos del Rio, which were conspicuous on the large llano
to the east south-east of us, about twelve miles away.
Galleta grass grew between the hills and the river, which
runs south from there for about four miles and then makes
a curve south-east continuing for about two miles more.
Although I could not actually follow it to its mouth, still
for many miles south-eastward and south its course was
easily traceable, and without doubt it reaches the sea,
which was visible in the horizon. Moreover, my guide,
Clodomiro Lopez, who during the expedition had proved
himself to be reliable, had been on the river in February
of the preceding year at only one league's distance from
the Gulf. An unusual amount of rain had fallen and at
that place the river-bed ran full. The bed of the river
was deeper than at Los Pozitos but not so wide and mez-
quites were growing on the banks. The mouth of the
river should be about four leagues west of the terminal of
the little railroad of the Sierra Pinta mine.

While the gravelly land stretching along the base of the
Sierra Blanca presents the usual smooth appearance and
vegetation, there may be observed farther away on the
plains sandy patches covered with galleta and sacaton
grass. Toward the south and the west at some distance
are seen green and yellowish patches, due to the colors of
flowers, for the soil is rich there. Nearer, scarcely two
miles off, is a small plain which presents the same color-
ing in its southern part, while it is red in its northern part,

FLORA NEAR SIERRA BLANCA 283

due to the prevalence of the golondrina. It is a small
sandy basin running east and west into which many
streams of rain-water disappear, and hence it is called by
my guide El Charco. The Pinacate lava flow reaches
that far.

On a visit to that locality I found that the most con-
spicuous plants were the prickly poppy, in Spanish cardo
(argemone intermedia), sphceralcea incana, a nightshade
(physalis lobata), nama stenophyllum, and plantago fas-
tigiata. The latter, which the Mexicans call la pastora, is
considered to be the best kind of pasture. Its seeds are
eaten by the Papago Indians, either uncooked or toasted
and ground to a pinole. These several species of plants
were all in flower. A pair of blue birds were near and in
one place one of them kept flapping its wings over the
white flowers of a poppy plant. A falcon also made its
appearance here and hawks, as usual, were much in evi-
dence.

At the base of the sierra we startled a flock of ten
mountain-sheep resting at noon in a small arroyo. Most
of them ran swiftly up the mountain sides, but an old ram
took the situation more calmly and walked leisurely be-
hind the rest. As we rode on, keeping our eyes on the
craggy ridges that extended from the summit, the ram
was seen again on top of one of them. His head appeared
against the sky over three hundred yards off; he stood
there for five minutes looking at us, immovably as in a
picture, the rocks on either side of him forming the frame.
I was going to put up my tripod and take a time exposure
when he slowly walked off, following the crest upward.

284 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

Just as I was about to mount my mule he suddenly came
dashing down the steep slope toward us, as if to ascertain
what we were doing there; at one-third of the distance
down he turned, however, and trotted swiftly and easily
along the steep and broken slope of the mountains, ex-
posing his side to the camera. We saw him again in
another direction, nearer to us, but high up against the
sky, where he stood for a few seconds and then turned his
white tail toward us and disappeared.

Five of those beautiful swift animals, called prong-
horn antelopes (antilocapra amencana mexicana), were
also seen grazing at about three hundred yards out on
the llano. When these animals move among the grease-
woods alone, they are easily discovered on account of their
color, which, while mainly light reddish brown, pres-
ents a good deal of white, the legs and under body being
thus marked, but the rest of the vegetation here offers
them much protection. The extravagant shape of the
choya, combined with its whitish color, often suggests an
antelope at a distance, and there are many old crags and
withered branches that look like prongs or horns. The
large open llano, the favorite haunt of these animals, is
in places covered with the golondrina and another taller
plant, both of a reddish hue, which resembles that of
the antelope. As I was dressed in white, I succeeded in
approaching them, but they are much more shy than
mountain-sheep, and they suddenly, although within easy
reach of my rifle, became alarmed at my photographic
efforts. They trotted away quickly in single file, describ-
ing long serpentine curves among the greasewood.

MEETING TRAVELLERS 285

Clodomiro and I made a circuitous route around
Sierra Blanca, overtaking the pack train late in the
evening at our former camp Galletal. My riding mule
had had no water for seventy-eight hours. The next
day I began to retreat to Sonoita in order to replenish
our store of provisions. In the afternoon, as we travelled
along, we noticed a cloud of dust rising from the llano
ahead of us, a sign of travellers coming our way. They
proved to be three Indians from Barajita, a rancheria
in Arizona, on their way to the Pinacate salina. Their
pack animals carried little else but empty packing nets,
as the provisions brought along on salt expeditions are
meagre and of only one kind. They asked about water
and grass. One of them said he knew that we had
started for these parts two months ago.

The leader wore a fantastic white hat with a bluish
plume waving from the centre. The second was an el-
derly, cunning-looking man, who dismounted and offered
his hand; the third was fat and more civilized looking,
known by the name of Jose Juan and as a prominent
medicine-man. He is usually capitan, but this time he
was probably not, as he came last. The capitan leads
going out and is the last in the procession coming back.
They seemed intelligent and it was strange to find some
natives of the desert after having beheld for so long only
their haunts of former days. They maintained a kind
but reserved mien and departed after a minute or two
of conversation. I gave one of them the cigarettes I
had with me, and he asked for matches which were
promptly supplied. Their animals were in good condi-

286 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

tion and though the sun was low, they would reach the
Cuervo tank, seven miles off, in a very short time,
Clodomiro said. Half an hour later we saw from the
dust in the distance that they were nearing their desti-
nation.

We camped that night on the bank of the Sonoita
river-bed, which is much larger here than in Sonoita,
thirteen miles south of Agua Dulce; it is about one
hundred and twenty feet wide and runs in two sections,
separated by a low narrow ridge, each part about fifty
feet wide. It is rather surprising that a river which
carries water for only a few hours at a time can leave
so large a course. At certain bends of the river where
the sand contains clay the water may last two days.
There were mezquites of considerable size here, and it
was pleasant to see them again, as it meant wood for
our fire. A couple of miles before arriving at Los Pozi-
tos we passed a low ridge where pieces of obsidian lay
scattered about. If my guide is correct, this is the only
place where obsidian occurs in the country south-west
of Sonoita. Two miles from Los Pozitos a number of
sea-shells of various kinds were observed about six feet
above the river-bed.

The little stream of crystal clear spring water at
Quitovaquita is smaller than a brook, but it seemed
much alive as it hurried on in its effort to keep the dam
full. As I had been long unaccustomed to seeing run-
ning water, and for twenty days had drunk it more or
less brackish, the tiny brook seemed almost unreal and
was enchanting in its effect. It was also a delight to

Leaving La Soda

Sierra Blanca, southern part, seen from the south

Waiting for his chance. At Los Pozitos

BEANS THAT ARE WORTH WHILE 287

indulge in my first real wash for nine days, for I could
hardly count to my credit the fact that my finger-tips
were cleaned morning and evening when washing my
cup and spoon with a little of our precious fluid.

As for provisions, meat we had not eaten since our
departure from the Colorado River, except for the first
few days, and it is difficult to keep a Mexican contented
without it, though the delicious mullets caught had
helped us out immensely; flour we had had to econo-
mize much, and for the previous four or five days there
had been an actual shortage; we had enough rice, coffee,
sugar, but our main standby was tepari, the small white
beans of the Sonora Indian and Mexican. The extent
of their cultivation in Mexico I do not know, for I have
not seen them outside of Sonora. I cannot myself too
strongly recommend them for regions suitable to them.
While the ordinary white beans have little flavor of their
own, these tepari have quite a strong and very pleas-
ant one, and even the water in which they are cooked
makes an agreeable sauce. They contain much fat in
themselves and they cook in a short time, which is an-
other great advantage.

The next day I arrived at Sonoita with a feeling of
satisfaction in having successfully accomplished the first
half of my exploration of the desert south-west of that
place. It was toward the end of February and spring-
time greeted us in the oasis. Already at a distance the
attractive light green color of the cotton-wood trees (Span-
ish, alamo) and willows were evident, the new leaves
being half-grown; peach, apple, and almond trees were

288 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

in bloom, and the verdure of the wheat-fields among the
Indian houses was pleasing to the eye.

Sr. Isauro Quiroz received us with whole-souled heart-
iness and invited the whole expedition to a meal in his
house, Guadalupe sitting down at the table afterward,
for there was not room enough for all at the same time
in the hospitable little dining-room. The fresh eggs
tasted delicious, and I felt as if I had arrived in civiliza-
tion again, for everything is relative in this world.

CHAPTER XVIII

NEW EXPEDITION WESTWARD— GROWLER WELL— A HARDY OLD
PAPAGO— DISAGREEABLE EXPERIENCE WITH A MEXICAN OF
MY PARTY— A VALUABLE NEW MEMBER— PAPAGO LOYALTY—
PRONGHORN ANTELOPE AGAIN— MOUNTAIN-SHEEP INSIDE
OF A CRATER— I LEAVE MY MAIN CAMP— MY TWO COMPAN-
IONS—RISKS TAKEN BY THE PROSPECTOR— DECEPTIVE AT-
MOSPHERE—OUR GUIDING STAR— READING TRACKS— SOLITUDE
—BEAUTY OF THE DESERT

On our first day in Sonoita a fresh south-westerly
breeze which later changed to northerly made it impos-
sible to start the patient burros grinding for us in the
flour mills, but the following days were spent busily
preparing for the new expedition, and on Thursday,
March 3, I was able to start again westward. My prin-
cipal object was to reach Sierra del Rosario, around
which I had travelled at a distance without having found
a visit practicable. Sr. Isauro Quiroz insisted that no
white man had ever been there, but however that may be,
it is certain that nobody from Sonoita or Colonia Lerdo
had ever gone there. By taking different routes from
those I had followed before, I expected to be able to
complete my knowledge of the desert.

My first objective point was Quitovaquita, where this
time I hoped to have better success in inducing old
Pancho, the medicine-man, to go with me. His daugh-
ter, whose illness on the occasion of my first visit had
then prevented him from accepting my invitation, had

died since. We found the place deserted, but the cattle

289

290 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

of the Indians were still being watered at the dam, and
through the herders we were informed of the where-
abouts of the owners, who had moved to a camp called
El Pozo, which was at no great distance. We accord-
ingly followed them and made our camp at the same
place. As nothing can be accomplished in a hurry with
Indians, I improved the occasion by taking a trip far-
ther up in Arizona to Bates's Well, or El Veit, as the
Mexicans name that locality, and which is now curiously
called the Growler Well. There is a copper mine here,
but work on it has been suspended, and the place is in-
habited by very few people. An American who was in
charge of the mine and the store received me hospitably.
He invited me to a square meal or two, presented me
with some copies of magazines and recent newspapers,
and, above all, helped me out with a new supply of rope
for my outfit, of which I was sadly in need.

The news of the day was that a week ago an Ameri-
can had been found dead on the playa north of Pinacate.
Caravajales, the Indian hermit of Los Papagos tank, had
come across the body which had been badly used by the
coyotes, and a black jacket had been found hanging in a
tree near by. Another report was brought to me that
the "professor," meaning myself, had also died from
thirst, and that the coyotes had dragged away his head.
This last confused rumor probably related to the human
remains found in a boat by members of my party.

At this place there lives a very old Papago, Jose
Juan, father of a restless, unapproachable Indian called
Agustin. The man is reputed to be one hundred and

THE WISDOM OF AGE 291

fifteen years old, and he certainly looked as if he might
have reached at least a hundred. As we entered his
house he rose to a sitting position, but was short of breath
and could not talk much to us, he said, owing to a re-
cent accident while drunk. Considering that the old
man had been intoxicated on the white man's brandy for
three days, the state of his health was certainly wonder-
ful. He had all his mental faculties intact, and was one
of those who after a sufficiently long acquaintance might
give a good deal of truthful information. According to
him, the sand Papagoes often camped in the winter-time
at Sierra Blanca. The Apaches in their raids used to go
as far as that mountain range. There was rain for-
merly every year, but it was no longer so, he said. He
spoke of some big bones he had seen among the great
sand dunes, and in regard to the ruins of a mission in the
western desert, rumors of which are current among the
Mexicans, he said he knew nothing about them, though
he had spent most of his life among the dunes. He also
professed ignorance concerning the existence of a smaller
salt water lagoon east of Laguna Prieta; however, it is
doubtful whether he wanted to tell the truth about this.
In regard to his son Agustin's silver mine, of which
both Indians and Mexicans have much to relate, includ-
ing the oft-told tale of pure silver being melted by mistake
for the making of bullets, he was less reserved, and said
that it was on top of the Cabeza Prieta range, not far
from the tinaja in the same direction as we travelled,
which would be west of it. He demanded kok peso, two
dollars, for permission to photograph him.

292 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

On my return to El Pozo I had a disagreeable experi-
ence with a Mexican in my party owing to the story of the
dead American on the playa. The report might or might
not be true, such tragedies are by no means unknown in
the desert, but this one had an entirely unexpected effect
on the man, who was otherwise intelligent and useful
though shifty. He was not afraid of the corpse to be
sure, but connected the tragic occurrence with two Mexi-
cans who just before our start had passed through Sonoita,
on their way westward to Tinajas Altas. As travellers in
that part of the country are very rare, the people of Sono-
ita always wonder what their business may be, and some-
times they are suspicious of them. The two men were
from Douglas, Arizona, and had not found it expedient
to inform anybody concerning the exact aim of their
journey. In fact, although they looked all right, they
had aroused some suspicion in my Mexican by giving
various accounts about their destination. He immedi-
ately jumped to the conclusion that these two men had
something to do with the dead, and in the presence of all
said to me: "You carry much money and had better go
by another route; I am not going to stand by you; I
will run away on my mare."

"Well, I am going to persevere, and I know the Papa-
goes will," I calmly answered. "I am glad you gave me
notice beforehand, but you will have no occasion to do
as you intend," I added.

He then addressed the Papagoes to get them to agree
with him, but they gave no answer, and only smiled.

"You know I carry little money, and I do not care

SEDITIOUS TALK 2g3

whether I lose the little I have; my note-books interest
me much more/' I thought it expedient to interject.

"The books do not interest us, do they?" he again
addressed the Papagoes, who remained silent. It was
very satisfactory to see them standing with me as firm as
a wall. As I walked away I heard him saying to Guada-
lupe, "Really there is something in this; we ought not to
expose ourselves to danger in this way," and again there
was no answer. How disagreeable it is to discover that
a man is morally and physically a coward. The next
morning, before our start, he sat mending the cover of one
of my three large canteens. "I am doing good work,"
he said; "a canteen will prove very important yonder.
In the desert a man would see the mouth of my rifle barrel
rather than that of my canteen," meaning thereby that
he would rather give a bullet from his rifle than water from
his canteen. In other ways he had some good qualities;
he was honest to the core, and was a very serviceable
cook. Discharging him was out of the question; his
services were indispensable to the success of the expedi-
tion, for in that country men are scarce or not to be had,
and any delay would have been fatal on account of the
approaching hot season.

Pancho, the old medicine-man, was induced to go with
us, but in the morning as we were starting he came to in-
form me that his donkey could not be found. Surely, if
it did not come, he would not be able to accompany us,
and I was afraid that this might be a scheme of his wife to
prevent him from going with us. But he was too impor-
tant a man for me to allow him to fail us, so I sent word to

294 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

the pack train, which had started already, to stop, and I
remained myself. An hour later, to my delight, he came
trotting briskly along on his small donkey.

Our first camp was made at La Papaga gold mine,
near the border, which is not being worked, but where a
good artesian well has been made. It is over a hundred
feet to the water, which is said to be more than that
number of feet deep, and it took two hours to water our
animals. Some American prospectors were camped here.
One party of them had just come in from the west and
reported that there was no water in the Tule well, which
lay on our proposed route. By digging in the sand they
had managed to get some for their animals, though it was
very bad and ill-smelling. They spoke of having met
some suspicious looking Mexicans at Tinajas Altas who
seemed destitute of everything except arms and full cart-
ridge belts, and were very non-committal in regard to their
errand. The Americans had even been led to believe
that they were waiting to meet me, and had given them
some provisions. Another party of two Americans, who
were prospecting in the neighborhood of La Papaga, had
just brought in provisions from Ajo, as well as some more
details of the story of the dead man on the playa. All
this was too much for my impulsive Mexican who de-
clared he would not go. "If you go, you will have no
arrieros (muleteers or packers) with you!" he exclaimed.

I came to the conclusion that it was best to ensure my-
self against further thoughtless and cowardly remarks by
leaving their author behind — not here, however, but in
the Pinacate region. I resolved to go to Tinaja de los

CHASING MOUNTAIN-SHEEP 295

Papagos and establish a main camp there from which
with two Indians I would make the intended expedition
alone. I was pleasantly surprised when early next morn-
ing Guadalupe, as spokesman for the Indians, came to me
in my tent and said : " Listen, Don Carlos, that is not
right. We will go with you. It is for this that we are
here." I suggested that it was not worth while to pay
attention to the Mexican. "We did," he said, "and it
did not appear to us right to talk like that." I thanked
him for this and he walked off looking for his burros.

Old Doctor Pancho, of small stature and riding a
small burro, led the way. As we were riding between
some low hills he suddenly showed animation, pointing
out fresh tracks of mountain-sheep. While we halted,
Pedro, a Papago who is an excellent shot, climbed up one
of the hills, while our Mexican, who was also a successful
hunter, set out to investigate the tracks, galloping around
the hills. Soon two shots were heard from Pedro, who
was running fast along the ridge; two sheep ran in front
of him, both evidently wounded, for he threw stones after
them in his anger. One fell and the other continued its
flight, pursued by more shots. It made its way toward
us and stopped, paralyzed in its hind legs, as it had been
shot in the spine. A third one had been wounded and, as
I did not like to go without putting it out of its suffering,
I decided to remain here over night.

The locality was quite attractive with much pasture
and an abundance of palo fierro. There was general
contentment in camp since the always vexing problem of
came had been solved so quickly and easily. The even-

296 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

ing was agreeably warm, 700 F. at seven o'clock, and a
soft breeze was blowing from the north-east and some-
times from the south, obliging me to be continually chang-
ing my seat at the fire in order to avoid the smoke while
I was toasting my tortillas. The following day, in the
morning, Pedro returned with the third sheep. They
were all young females and the skin of the youngest was
preserved.

After having travelled across a large plain, part of
which is called La Playa and presents the unusual specta-
cle of greasewoods that are sickly looking, small, and grow-
ing close together, we passed Monument 180 standing
like an outpost on the great lava flow of Pinacate. We
then made for Tinaja de los Papagos, which, on account
of malpais, cannot be reached by a direct line. As we
were passing the rim of a great crater, only five or six
miles from our destination, we discovered two antelopes
among the desert vegetation, standing motionless at about
one hundred and fifty yards distant and looking at us.
We halted and Pedro was dispatched to try to secure them.
Unfortunately, one antelope was only wounded, one of its
forelegs being broken near the shoulder, and this did
not prevent it from running extremely fast on its three
remaining legs: In spite of a most zealous chase for
hours the next morning, it showed as much agility as if
nothing had happened to it, and finally the pursuit had
to be given up.

Our animals after forty-eight hours without water
were glad to drink; the work had not been hard and the
heat of the last days was never greater than 86° F. in the

PHOTOGRAPHING MOUNTAIN-SHEEP 297

shade. At the tank in the evening pigeons by the hun-
dreds were still in evidence, and two or three shots from
my gun furnished me with delicious food for several days.

I was desirous of getting some photographs of the
mountain-sheep by visiting the neighboring crater again,
as perchance some might have found their way into it
this time. As we went toward our two previously assigned
places nearly half-way down, the noise from the cinders in
which we were sliding started out a mountain-sheep at the
bottom of the ample crater. He came running out of
the large talus to the llano below and seemed very shy.

We took up our different positions and Pedro, much
against his inclination, was ordered to descend the three
or four hundred feet that remained in order to startle
the animal so that he would come up and pass before the
camera. The effect of Pedro's arrival at the bottom
was to make the sheep ascend the talus, just opposite to
where I was seated. It then ran swiftly and sideways
across the accumulation of rocks as easily as a horse
gallops over a plain. According to Mexican accounts
the mountain-sheep is at a disadvantage on level coun-
try, and a galloping horse easily overtakes it, but among
the loose rocks he showed his agility to the best advan-
tage. Approaching in this manner the place where the
first exit was possible, the toro (ram) suddenly stopped
some one hundred and fifty yards from the man who was
watching there. He stood quietly for fully ten minutes
when I asked Guadalupe, who was placed not far from
me, to fire a shot from his rifle to start him again. The
sound, with its reverberating echoes, had the desired

298 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

effect, and the animal resumed its circling of the crater,
this time lowering its course somewhat and stopping now
and then as if uncertain which way to go and how to
defeat the enemies' designs.

A knoll soon hid the sheep from view and made it
impossible for me to follow him, though I expected soon
to see him emerge and pass my stand. Suddenly the
man at the other station shouted: "Jrriba!" (Higher
up!). The animal had taken an unexpected route, and
I made as fast as I could for the top of the knoll, just
in time to catch him at forty yards' distance as he stood
wavering for a few seconds before continuing his flight
to the upper part of the crater. Swiftly he scaled the
slippery cinders in a straight line for the rim, and then
my men, who in the meantime had contained themselves
with difficulty, were allowed to fire, but the distances were
considerable and the animal easily made his escape.

On Tuesday, March 15, I left my camp to make the
intended exploration of the sand dune country west of
there. I was accompanied only by two Indians, Pedro
and the old medicine-man, Pancho, both belonging to
the sand people, the latter being one of the few left who
had actually lived there. He spoke no Spanish nor Eng-
lish and was not particularly distinguished by any pro-
found knowledge of the art of travel, but he was business-
like in his silent ways and reliable, though extremely
sensitive and apt to imagine a cause of offence where
none had been given. Pedro spoke Spanish, was an
efficient packer, could make tortillas, and was a good
all-round man, quick in his actions but often careless.

INTO THE HILLS 299

He was unusually intelligent, though of an unpleasant,
uneven temper. We had selected the best animals, all
burros, with the exception of my riding mule, and took
along only the most necessary things, leaving my tent
and cot behind. Water would be scarce on the road, so
we filled our large canteens in addition to the barrels,
which usually furnished us with water for three days. I
was glad to be off, and felt free and ready for action.

The Indians on their trips from Los Papagos to Tina-
jas Altas used to go through the pass between Sierra
del Tuseral and Sierra Nina. I chose an unusual route,
skirting the latter's southernmost point, which is a more
laborious one on account of sand dunes to be crossed
there. A dry arroyo passes between this point and a
high wall of sand dunes and then runs west for a very
short distance before it is lost in the sand. Our animals
worked well with the exception of the "doctor's" little
burro, which did not like the trip, but later mended its
ways.

It was somewhat surprising to find that the waves
of the large sand dunes reached quite up to the foot
of the south-western part of the Sierra Nina. While
looking for a camping place here, I met with the start-
ling sight of a pair of blue overalls, quite new looking,
lying among the dunes, and a few yards farther I came
across a red woven blanket of poor quality. The Ind-
ians both declared without hesitation that they had be-
longed to "Melicano" (an American). No place seems
deterrent to the prospector; he is lured farther and far-
ther away, for what he is looking for may be found just

300 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

in some lonely hill that looms up before his eyes among
the sand dunes. He throws all caution to the winds and
only on his return does the water question become seri-
ous to him. This one probably had attached some hope
of water to the dry arroyo which is here covered with
sand but is traceable among the dunes by the experi-
enced eye. His senses became bewildered and the last
stage of suffering from thirst had probably been reached
when he began to throw off his clothes; such would be
the account of all those who know the desert. When
we made our camp near some palo fierro trees, Pedro
told me that Doctor Pancho had taken possession of the
red blanket. It was a ghastly relic to carry along, so I
offered him two pesos (dollars) to leave it behind, to
which he readily consented, laughing at the same time
in his quiet way.

The sand dunes, which seemed eternal, were found
the next morning to be at this point a small branch from
the main body, running in waves from south-west to
north-east, and they were only a mile and a half across.
After passing them we travelled over hard, gravelly
soil; on my left, south-westward, as we followed Sierra
Nina to its end, was spread before my eyes a vast ex-
panse of llanos and sand dunes, with Sierra del Viejo
running into it from a northern direction, and mountain
tops appearing here and there — a lonely vista, but not
depressing.

It is well known that the clear air of the desert exag-
gerates detail and makes distant objects look near; this,
of course, is undeniable, but the opposite seems equally

TRYING TO KEEP OUR ANIMALS 301

true, for distant objects, such as mountains, again and
again, appear farther away and much larger than they
are in reality. The sierras of the desert look impressively
large at a distance of from ten to fifteen miles, but, on
approaching them, it is found to be a small matter to
scale them, as they may rise above the plains only one
or two thousand feet. The afternoon of the preceding
day I had a striking example of this deception after hav-
ing gone through a very small pass in the southernmost
part of Sierra Nina; the pass itself could not have been
more than fifteen or twenty feet above the surface, and
the knoll, which was thus separated from the main range,
could not have been over fifty feet high, still, three-
quarters of a mile farther on, in looking back at the lit-
tle pass, the knoll and the range looked very much larger
and higher, and, in fact, from my point of view, which
was lower, they made quite an impressive appearance
among the dunes.

We struck the old Indian trail alluded to above,
which, however, is indistinct and difficult to follow near
the base of Sierra de la Lechugilla. Our animals all
seemed very determined to wend their way back again
to Los Papagos; this was our second day out and, being
thirsty,. they were likely to stray, so under conditions such
as these, where water is found at such great intervals,
it is imperative to hobble the animals very carefully for
the night in order to secure against their loss, which
might be fatal to the expedition. "We are going to
watch them until the moon sets," said Pedro, but he
was kept busy all through the night turning them back,

3o2 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

and one of them, my riding mule, had finally to be tied.
In this way they had little to eat and in the morning the
burros overran our "kitchen," putting their noses into our
boxes and trying to bite holes in our flour bags; they
also attempted to remove the plugs from the water barrels.

As usual, we had begun the day in darkness. Our
way of knowing the time for rising was from the height
of the planet Venus above the horizon, her approximate
position being pointed out in the sky the evening before.
We managed to get an early start in order to reach
Tinajas Altas in good time, for this was our third day
without water. The picturesque tree, ocotillo (fouqui-
eria splendens), was noticeable everywhere growing in
great profusion on the gravelly soil. Its magnificent
vermilion-red flowers growing in tufts at the end of
slender branches which emerge from a subterranean
stem, in the manner of a bouquet, looked splendid against
the sombre gray background of the sierras. The flowers
appear before the leaves and on some of these plants
the leaves were beginning to show. Also a good many
species of cacti were observed, two of them with reddish
flowers. It is curious that in the wide area along the
coast south and west of Sierra de Lechugilla, Gila Range,
Pinacate, and Sierra Blanca, cacti are so rare that they
almost disappear.

We travelled at a good steady pace along the weather-
worn northern end of Sierra de la Lechugilla. In a
thicket of a dry arroyo I tried to take some snapshots of
a quail which exposed itself temptingly to my photo-
graphic inclinations, and thus I fell ten or fifteen min-

LEFT BEHIND 303

utes behind my men. There were many thickets along
the sandy arroyo in which their tracks, were very easy
to follow. As my party was so close ahead of me, I
did not pay much attention to the quality of the tracks
that after a while were found to lead across the arroyo
toward a valley in the northern end of the sierra. Per-
haps my men had made a detour to see if there were
water in the small tinaja which Clodomiro Lopez had
discovered there, and which could not be so very far
away. A little farther along I made out fresh tracks of
nailed boots; horses had passed as well as burros and,
as the man evidently had returned the same way he had
gone, it was difficult to distinguish the tracks I was fol-
lowing. I had to cut across the bottom of the valley
to make more sure of what I saw and it became quite
plain that two horses, three burros, and one mule had
passed here and that, consequently, my party had followed
another course, so I returned to the arroyo and took the
right tracks up again.

My mule not having eaten anything the previous night,
and having sweat much the day before, was worn out, and
I had walked on foot for an hour and a half, dragging my
animal along, when the footprints I followed halted at a
long, low ridge, bare and stony; here, too, the man with
the nailed boots and his animals appeared again making
confusion. I was not lost, for my "bump of locality" is
well developed, and there is nothing to fear under circum-
stances like these if one keeps one's head cool. The only
thing to do was to make a large circle of the country to
cut the tracks, as the expression goes, but it was vexa-

3o4 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

tious, nevertheless, to have all this trouble. My Indians
had hurried along, of course, for the sake of their animals,
and it would never occur to them that I should have any
difficulty in following them. I did not know how far
away Tinajas Altas was, but once on their tracks it would
be easy to find ; daylight was essential for this, but even if
I should have to stay out for the night, it would not be
any great misfortune, for I had plenty of water in my
canteen. The weather was rather sultry and there were
cirrus and cirro-cumulus clouds which sometimes hid the
sun from view, but it did not feel warm, as a soft breeze
from the north-west was blowing.

Having made sure that my men had travelled in no
other direction, I returned to the low stony ridge, and by a
careful examination I found that stones had been scratched
or turned over, indicating the way they had passed. They
had followed the crest of the ridge for a couple of hundred
yards, then descended, making for the range of the Tinajas
Altas. I followed their tracks up to a mile's distance from
the range, then I knew I was right, so I directed my steps
to a fresh looking palo fierro for a short and well-earned
rest in its grateful though scanty shade before continu-
ing my journey. My mule took to the green leaves of
this attractive desert tree, while I had a frugal lunch of
toasted wheat and some California dried prunes.

In my meandering course that day I had come across
many tracks of which the most conspicuous were those of
the wagons employed fourteen years ago by the Inter-
national Boundary Commission, and which in countries
other than arid might have been judged a few months old.

NEWS OF THE WILDS 305

They had had a camp somewhere between the two sierras
and water was brought from Tinajas Altas. Tracks
left by human activity in a solitary region like this are
disturbing and seem to be out of harmony with the rest of
nature. To one who for the first time travels in the
desert, the attention which Indians and Mexicans pay to
tracks, whether of human beings, horses, or of other do-
mestic animals, is not understood, while those of wild ani-
mals seem more to the point. All tracks are to them as
newspapers to us, and after having been for some time
in the desert, one becomes equally interested in the stories
they tell.

What was this man with the nailed boots doing here ?
Did he belong to the party of suspicious looking Mexi-
cans whom the American prospectors from Tucson pre-
sented with provisions in Tinajas Altas ? Or was he one
of those whom the imagination of my impulsive Mexican
credited with the murder of an American found dead on
the playa ? The hobnails did not seem to favor either
theory. In this part of the continent only Americans use
that kind of shoes; Mexicans prefer those of lighter
weight. These must be American tracks and they must
be those of a prospector, for they lead along the moun-
tain sides and the prospector likes to see the formation of
the rocks near by. The tracks did not point to some
runaway, because they appeared in different parts, as if
the man had been on leisurely business. I felt reassured
as to the "vileness of man," though surely the "prospect
pleased" in spite of the absence of water; the traveller is,
in fact, apt to forget that this is a waterless region.

3o6 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

Along the banks of the arroyo where I had my siesta
an exuberant growth of flowers was conspicuous for hun-
dreds of yards. There were only two kinds, and they
were both common bushes in this region, but, still beauti-
ful in their best spring attire and of an unusual develop-
ment, they presented a garden-like appearance. Here
chuparosas grew as high as a man and twice that in diam-
eter, each with thousands of labiate flowers, Venetian red
in color. Interspersed with them was the white brittle
bush bearing a dense mass of bright yellow flowers which
resembled marguerites. There was no dust in the walks
of this garden of nature, but only the cleanest, sandy
gravel. Spring was in the air and I had seen the grease-
woods that day covered with their lustrous flowers. In
trying to photograph the quail I had been compelled to
make my way through a luxuriant growth of the thorny
quaviri bush now in leaf and with blue flowers, and the
palo verde, from which my quail sent forth its defiant
and melancholy cry, had already half developed blos-
soms which a little later would appear in extraordinary
abundance.

The landscape gave an impression of moist sub-
tropics and not of a country on the greater part of which
no rain had fallen for nearly half a year. Probably a
scanty flow of water had run in the arroyo for the last
time on January i, when it rained at Yuma, but, rain
or no rain, spring in that country comes as usual, and
there was no indication of the lack of water. To be
sure, little animal life was seen that day beyond the
quail and two small birds which told me that water

IN COMMUNION WITH NATURE 307

could not be so very many miles away, but there was
nothing to depress one in the peaceful landscape, over
which the sun sent its wealth of light. To me the des-
ert is radiant with good cheer; superb air there certainly
is, and generous sunshine, and the hardy, healthy look-
ing plants and trees with their abundant flowers inspire
courage. One feels in communion with nature and the
great silence is beneficial. Could I select the place
where I should like best to die, my choice would be one
such as this. I hope at least it may not fall to my lot
to pass away in New York, where I might be embalmed
before I was dead and where it costs so much to die
that I might not leave enough wherewithal to defray the
expenses of a funeral.

CHAPTER XIX

I OVERTAKE MY MEN— AGAIN AT TINAJAS ALTAS— PROGRESS
UNDER DIFFICULTIES— EXPLORING IN LOS MEDANOS—AS-
TONISHING DISPLAY OF FLOWERS— PICTURESQUE CAMP ON
THE DUNES— I LOSE MY RIDING MULE— SIERRA DEL ROSARIO
—TRAVEL AT NIGHT— THE WONDERFUL "ROOT OF THE
SANDS"

My mule and I felt better for the little rest and with
fresh gathered strength we continued our tracking and
arrived in good time at Tinajas Altas, where I was de-
lighted to find my two Indians. Since I had been at this
place last some bushes had been burned in the arroyo,
and there had also been dug two long, deep holes in the
ground which served immediately to solve the mystery
surrounding those Mexicans we had heard of, who were
so strangely behaving and so well armed. They had
been engaged in an occupation dearly loved by many of
their countrymen — that of digging for hidden treasures.
To bury money was the usual method of guarding it
during the period of unsettled conditions in Mexico, and
rumor has it that a great deal of plata (silver) was once
deposited in this place for safe-keeping. People who
returned from California in the fifties, or people who
robbed those who did not return, have also been credited
with the burying of treasures here.

At six o'clock, after a fresh gale from the south,

there was a slight attempt at rain, which was repeated

308

THE NEST OF THE LITTLE BIRD

309

at nine o'clock when the wind ceased and the moon
broke through the clouds. A few birds were singing at
daybreak and there were numbers of bees and also bum-
blebees on the blossoms of the greasewoods. In a palo
fierro that spread its branches over our " kitchen " I dis-
covered the nest of a characteristic desert bird, the gnat-
catcher {polio ptila). Curious that this little bird could
find its way to these lonely, hidden pools, fifty miles
from the nearest watercourse, I climbed up to take a
close look at it. Though the bird on the nest seemed
restless, continually moving her black head to either side,
she still remained sitting, and only repeated warnings of
the male, which darted anxiously down toward her,
finally caused her to fly away. The nest was cup-
shaped and beautifully made of steel gray fibre taken
from the seed pods of a certain vine, philibertea linearis,
of which the Papagoes eat the pods either raw or boiled.
Pedro, upon seeing my interest in the nest, expressed
concern lest I should molest it, which was rather sur-
prising, as he did not seem to harbor any other humane
feelings with regard to animals either in his hunting ex-
peditions or in the treatment of his own burro.

The sooner we undertook the proposed expedition to
the unexplored sierra the better, while our animals were
still in good condition, and one day's rest was all that
could be allowed. My mule had drained the last water
in the lower tank, so the Indians with a bucket scooped
down some eighty gallons from the one next above. On
the morning of our start el doctor did not succeed in col-
lecting the burros until after nine o'clock. Further time

310 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

was consumed in driving them up to the tank to drink,
and after their loads were put on they seemed to take
unkindly to the road and hid themselves among the
greasewood bushes, giving my men no end of trouble, so
it was nearly eleven o'clock when we finally got under
way.

In order to allow my mule, which was very tired be-
sides having a swollen back, to recuperate, I rode a
burro, the first experience of this kind in my life. It
was not exactly pleasant, for the tiny though strong
animal had evidently never carried a rider on its back
before, as she had been only used for carrying wood.
She had absolutely no "mouth" and only a garrotes
was it possible to make her move, and even that way
sometimes failed. However, she could be made to go
as long as she saw the other burros ahead, and by great
and continued use of brute force I managed to keep
along with the rest of the party up to the southernmost
point of the range. Here I had to stop a few minutes to
take an observation for my map, a sufficient time to al-
low the pack train to be lost from sight among the trees
and bushes, and therefore, when I again mounted my
diminutive ass, she absolutely refused to move in any di-
rection. I had to dismount and try to drive her ahead
of me, holding her by the rope, but only by running
three times as much as she did, in order to prevent her
from taking the wrong direction, and continually beating
her, could I manage to make any progress. We ran into
choyas, the spines of which fastened themselves into her
face and onto me, and there was nothing else to do but

AN EXASPERATING RIDE

3ii

to get rid of them, as they are troublesome and painful
beyond description; then she would run in under the
strong thorny branches of the palo fierro, from where
she could be extricated only with the most energetic use
of force majeure. After having advanced in this way two
miles in a blazing sun, I found Pedro waiting for me
farther down the arroyo, not wishing to leave me be-
hind again. It was two o'clock and we were both hun-
gry, but "A quel se fue" — "he [Pancho] had gone on"
— and we decided not to lose time by eating lunch, for
I wanted to get as near the mountains as possible be-
fore night.

We passed the mountain that I call Cerro Pinto,
to the south of the sierra, which is of a different, very
dark color, and came out on the llanos south-west of it.
The mountain range, which was our goal, here presented
itself in full view. It runs in the usual direction and
consists of several parts, some of them single mountains,
stretched out for about fourteen miles. There are two
main bodies of the sierra, each little range being per-
haps four miles long; then follow mountains at both
ends, more or less connected, some of them, especially
those toward the north-west, being half submerged in
huge sand dunes. The shape of the mountains is the
usual one, the crests resembling the teeth of a saw.
This succession of hill-tops is conspicuous even at a great
distance; hence the name of rosario (rosary), which has
been proposed, is appropriate and it should be called
Sierra del Rosario.

The soil was harder than expected, and travel, ac-

3i2 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

cordingly, was quite easy. A wagon track, which was
no doubt that of a prospector, led out in the same direc-
tion, but after a mile or two the wagon seemed to have
turned back. A belt of large, bare dunes stretched in
front of us, flanking the sierra toward the north. We
steered toward the central part where the dunes are
somewhat lower.

After six miles' travel from Cerro Pinto, we struck
again the arroyo which we had left there. Its course,
which lay perhaps only a mile and a half from our route,
was easily distinguished by the growth of palo fierro on
its banks, and farther down low sand dunes appeared on
both sides of it.

On reaching the arroyo I was agreeably surprised by
a magnificent display of flowers. It was again the Oeno-
thera trichocalyx that appeared, but on a much vaster
scale than anything so far seen. Innumerable plants sep-
arated from each other by wide spaces seemed like old
friends to me, as the large, pure white flowers nodded in
the mild, south-western breeze of a late afternoon. The
verdure of the plants was intense and they looked as
fresh as if they were growing on the highlands of Nor-
way. Some of the bunches were over five feet in diam-
eter and had more than a hundred flowers. It may be
that the famous rain of January the ist of an other-
wise rainless winter had reached here. What the vast
stretches of low sand dunes in that western region are
like, after the ordinary winter showers, may be easily
imagined, and a long journey to see them would be
worth the while of a lover of nature. Although the

OENOTHERA TRICHOCALYX, NEAR SlERRA DEL ROSARIO

OENOTHERA TRICHOCALYX, NEAR SlERRA DEL ROSARIO. A FIXE GROWTH

OENOTHERA TRICHOCALYX, SOUTH OF SlERRA BLANCA

PERFUME AND FLOWERS 313

white flowers were the most conspicuous, three more
species were growing here. There would be places
where only yellow flowers grew, the smaller species
{baileya multiradiata) reminding one of certain mar-
guerites; the larger species was an encelia. Then again,
and this was perhaps more frequent, some flowers which
resembled verbena, of a deep rose purple (abronia um-
b ell at a) would appear exclusively; they grew in beds,
close to the surface, and made a most charming picture.
These had a strong perfume such as that of night vio-
lets, while the white ones had only a slight scent, like
that of water-lilies.

It was half an hour before sunset when we entered
this field of beauty, the men wading knee-deep among
the flowers and paying no more attention to them than if
they were air, while the burros ate them as they passed
along. The air was filled with perfume during the three
miles we travelled through this most attractive nursery
of mother nature. We then climbed up on the great
sand dunes and, as darkness set in, made camp there,
a fine view of the sierra, still more than three miles dis-
tant, before us.

I warned Pedro to hobble all the animals especially
well. There was no other danger than that of losing
some animal in the night through carelessness in tying
the rope which binds their forelegs together. He as-
sured me that it had been done carefully, but he was
in a bad humor and said there was no wood, so he was
not going to prepare any food. It was late and he was
hungry and had much to do, as the "doctor" was not

3 H NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

able to be of much assistance in "kitchen" work, so I ex-
cused his mode of expressing himself. I went out myself
to gather canutillo and dry branches from some solitary
greasewood bushes nearby and the " doctor " also brought
a load of canutillo. I told Pedro there was no necessity
for making tortillas that night, that we would open two
cans of corned beef and one of tomatoes. He made coffee
and we had a good supper. It was Pedro's habit to get
angry and say harsh things without warning, but his
wrath passed very quickly. It seemed nice to be among
the medanos again; the day had been very fatiguing and
it was pleasant to stretch oneself out on a soft bed of
clean sand, while viewing by moonlight the sierra we
were to visit the next day.

In the morning Doctor Pancho brought the bad news
that my riding mule had broken its hobble and gone.
He showed the piece of strong horse-hair rope which
in Mexican fashion had served as a hobble. I had my
suspicions that it was a matter of carelessness on the
part of Pedro who was as stubborn and know-it-all as
the burro he rode, intelligent and efficient as he other-
wise was. The mule probably had started back to our
camp at Los Papagos and, though the "doctor" offered
to go out again and look for it, small hope could be at-
tached to the success of his efforts. It was an unpleas-
ant prospect, having to exchange my spirited young ani-
mal with an excellent gait for a burro, but the sooner I
reconciled myself to its loss, there being slight chance of
its recovery, the better for me. After I had taken some
photographs, changed films in my kodaks, and made

GUARDING AGAINST MISCHIEF 315

additions to my map, we put the baggage together and
covered it with my tent fly, the two barrels of water,
the most important part of our outfit, being in that
way safe from attack from the burros; the latter have
a peculiar way of removing the two wooden stoppers
from the barrel with their teeth and then overturning it
to get at the water. They are also mischievous in other
ways and will chew up papers, but there was nobody
else to guard against, and this is one advantage at least
that one has in the desert.

Doctor Pancho had already departed on his rather
hopeless quest, when Pedro and I, each mounted on
a burro, started for our unknown land. The sand dunes
lasted for three miles more, up to a distance of a mile or
so from the mountain range. We were still surrounded
by flowers in all the little valleys of the sand dunes, and
as the latter diminished in height the number of flowers
increased until at last in the low outskirts we met with
an unusual wealth of the purple kind, forming a carpet
for the greasewoods and even growing on the somewhat
harder soil next to the sand.

These hitherto unvisited mountains showed the usual
formation of light gray granite with streaks of reddish
color. Seen at close range, the sierras of the desert re-
gion, weather-worn and washed away, cannot be pro-
nounced attractive looking, but such is certainly not the
case with the vegetation, which they are instrumental
in bringing forth in that arid region. For the very soil
of its growth once formed part of these mountains and
may be called their detritus. We ascended a pass in a

3i6 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

spur of the mountains toward the north and east and
returned by another, some two hundred and fifty feet
above the base. There was a nice view from there,
north-west over the little valley or inlet, sand dunes
like huge snow fans breaking in over the mountains
toward the north and threatening to cover them up.
The dry arroyo of the inlet was surprisingly wide in its
short whirling course, which is edged by numerous palo
fierro trees, indicating that the mountain sides are capa-
ble of gathering much water at times. Old trails were
passed, and broken pottery and a pounding-hole, in which
the Indians had crushed mezquite beans, were evidences
of the presence formerly of Papago Indians, who camped
here at times, carrying water with them, doubtless in
gourds.

The odor of the stunted torote tree and other resinous
plants was agreeable. Along the base of the mountains
the flowers of the palo fierro attracted many hymenop-
tera. I noticed a small gray bird, perhaps a thrasher,
running among the stones on the mountain side near the
base; an unmistakable thrasher of a larger size was also
seen. Retracing our steps around the southern part of
the middle mountain, we reached through an easy pass
the west side of the sierra. Contrary to our expecta-
tions, a small llano was found here, covered with
greasewood growth and skirted by sand dunes at four or
five miles' distance toward the south. Fresh tracks of
mountain-sheep were seen. The shrill notes of hawks
startled the silence as usual and toward sunset I could
distinguish the singing of three different birds. The

A MOONLIGHT RIDE 317

water in Tinajas Altas, from twenty to twenty-five miles
away, is the nearest.

It grew dark before we were able to begin our return
to camp. Approaching the place where we had seen
such a quantity of the purple flowers, their delicious per-
fume, which is strongest at night, was felt long before we
could see them. The first thing to do was to strike our
own tracks of the morning, else it would be decidedly
difficult to find the camp as the dunes looked very much
alike. When we had once struck them we could safely
leave the rest to our riding animals, for the burros with
remarkable ease are able to follow tracks even in a pitch-
dark night. Pedro, who weighed 215 pounds, dismounted
from his steed and put it ahead of the procession, which
it eagerly led home. I had begun to be reconciled to my
small but powerful mount; it seemed all muscle and
hard as a rock, as it safely and surely made for camp,
working knee-deep in the soft sand.

The great waves of dunes extended in almost the
same direction that we travelled, namely, toward north
north-east. The moon cast its pale light over the pecul-
iar landscape and made it look like winter. Travel at
night always seems to take a long time, and we thought
so, especially as the dunes grew higher. The fantastic,
nonchalant canutillo, a greasewood bush half buried in
the sand, and a tuft of grass here and there, were the only
vegetation apparent. Finally a small but friendly and
very welcome light appeared from our camp in a de-
clivity between two waves of dunes; a few minutes more
and our busy day was over.

3i8 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

Doctor Pancho, in our absence, had made himself use-
ful by gathering a lot of fuel, such as it was, and he had
cooked bones of mountain-sheep with tepari beans for us.
He had not been able to overtake the mule, but he had
prepared a very pleasant surprise for me in the shape of
four specimens of the "root of the sands," the Indian
name for a much coveted dish. They lay in a row on
the sand and looked very interesting. I had heard much
of this plant, for even the Mexicans relish the camote of
the medanos, as they call it, but the past rainless winter
had held out little hope that my desire to see it would be
realized. This peculiar plant, which is about three feet
long, has no leaves and looks like a root covered with
scales which grow thicker toward the top. It protrudes
slightly above the sand, ending in a button-like excres-
cence on the upper surface of which there is observable
more than a dozen tiny light blue bells. It is only
found in the large barren sand-hills in the months of
March and April, and during this time the Papagoes in
former days used to gather at such localities, living al-
most exclusively on the plant. In May and June the
part of the plant which grows above the surface withers
and disappears.

Selecting the three best ones as specimens to be
taken along, I sampled one of them and found it to be
a succulent and excellent food. It is more tender than
a radish, as well as much more juicy, and the whole
root can be eaten. It has a sweetish and agreeable
flavor all its own. The Indians usually toast these plants
on the coals, when they resemble sweet potatoes in taste,

I I

""0 ■

1 H
O

o <
Q

AN EXTRAORDINARY BOON 319

but I prefer to eat them raw. They are an especially
delicious relish to a thirsty man, and they also quickly
appease his hunger; in fact, of all the many kinds of
edible roots that I have tried in their uncooked state,
used among natives in different parts of the earth, I
know of none which can compare with this one in refresh-
ing and palatable qualities. We came across some more
of them later in the dunes south of Pinacate, which were
a smaller form. They practically furnish both food and
drink and, after an ordinary winter season of light show-
ers, are found in great numbers among the largest sand
dunes along the upper coast of the Gulf of California.
They have also been found in other parts of Sonora as,
for instance, at Lerdo.

This extraordinary creation of the desert has the well-
sounding as well as appropriate name ammobroma sonorce
(sand food). Its native name is hiatatk (bia, sand, sand-
dunes; tatk, root). It was first mentioned by Dr. Asa
Gray in 1854 as a "large and fleshy root-parasite grow-
ing in the naked sands of the desert at the head of the
Gulf of California. " It had been discovered in the same
year by Col. Andrew B. Gray, during his "survey and
explorations for ascertaining the practicability of con-
structing a southern railway to the Pacific." Apparently
this highly useful plant might be transplanted to advan-
tage to other desert regions of the earth.

CHAPTER XX

RETURN TO TINAJAS ALTAS— EVASIVE TRAVELLERS— AN "OLD-
TIMER"— THE CABEZA PRIETA MOUNTAINS— VAGUE NOTIONS
OF PROPERTY— THE POOLS OF CABEZA PRIETA— A RAINY DAY
—I REACH MY MAIN CAMP— THE ADVANTAGE OF TRAVEL WITH
DONKEYS— MY INDIAN COMPANIONS— THE SAND PEOPLE

While it was still dark the next morning, we were
again in activity by the light of our guiding morning
star — to rise at dawn would have been a very late hour
for us. To the annoyance of Pedro, who always wanted
to hurry, an hour was spent on the road photographing
the flowers. It was night when we arrived at Tinajas
Altas, a moderate gale from the south-east blowing, and
we all felt tired. Four unwelcome strangers made their
appearance, driving up their wagon outside of the little
valley. They were evidently American citizens from
somewhere on the Gila River, most of them Mexicans,
and the owner of the wagon and the fat horses was an
unpleasant old Italian. They were not prospectors, and
they were a queer lot — very different from the ordinary
Mexicans — and they gave me an uneasy feeling because
of their underhanded and evasive ways. Probably they
were nothing worse than treasure hunters, but it was a
relief to have them continue their journey next morning,
while we recuperated here another day.

Pedro found that my lost mule had watered at the
tinaja, and after following its tracks for many miles he

A PLEASANT MEETING

321

concluded that it had continued on its way back; a few
weeks later the Indians brought it to me in Sonoita. In
the afternoon, toward sunset, a small man on horseback
turned up. He was old and his face was almost hidden
under an immense straw hat. His horse was dragging
along a log of mezquite, for firewood is rare at Tinajas
Altas. He bowed his head to me in a genial way and
I saw at a glance that I had an "old-timer" before me.
He was a prospector and his companion would soon
follow him in a wagon. The new-comer was such a con-
trast to the evasive men of the morning that his appear-
ance gave me genuine delight. He said they were from
Mohawk on a prospecting tour to Pinacate. I suggested
that lava fields generally were not good places to find
gold, although I had heard that samples of gold-bearing
malpais (lava) have been picked up in the region north
of Pinacate. It was just there that he was going, and
from a pouch tied to a string around his neck he brought
forth for my admiring eyes a most unusual sample of
free gold that literally studded a dark brown piece of
rock which, in fact, seemed to be old lava.

In the evening I spent a pleasant hour in the cheer-
ful camp of the two American Mexicans. The old pro-
spector was an entertaining man, quite at home in the
desert, where he had made many a journey in vain pur-
suit of the elusive metal. He had prospected in Sierra
del Viejo where Cipriano Ortega once worked a silver
mine which was lost later and could never be found
again. He had also been looking for the lost mission
and showed where some years ago my friend, Prof. W.

322 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

J. McGee, "walking barefoot," he said, for the sake of
his health, had camped in a hut made among the rocks
near the lower tank. Their outfit was not substantial;
in a light wagon they carried their provisions, and their
water supply was kept in cast-off Standard Oil cans. I
told them that it would be difficult, and perhaps impos-
sible, to find any water at the Tule well, but their en-
thusiasm and determination recognized no obstacles.

As we were about to go our separate ways the next
morning, the old prospector brought four eggs which he
wanted to present to me. He urged me to accept them,
as they had a dozen more for themselves. This would be
a trivial matter in the ordinary routine of life, but was
touching under circumstances like these. I promised in
return to present him with mountain-sheep meat when he
arrived at Los Papagos, where he was going to establish
his camp and where I hoped to see him again later. He
and his companion never turned up, however, and I sin-
cerely hope that nothing untoward happened to them to
which his thirty years' experience in the desert was inade-
quate.

The weather was much cooler than I expected on this
trip, a nice breeze of moderate strength blowing every
day, and the nights were almost too cool. Even in April it
is still possible to travel in that region without much dis-
comfort. At the Cabeza Prieta range we made camp in a
pass near some large red trachyte boulders. The red-
dish looking mountains seemed to be even more than
usually narrow-crested and steep. We made a tour
through the central part and came to an interesting

CONFLICTING CONSIDERATIONS 323

short, box-like canon surrounded by mountains that
seemed higher and more difficult to ascend than they were
in reality. While we were considering as to which way
we had better proceed, two female mountain-sheep ap-
peared frequently on a ridge against the sky, watching
us for many minutes and then disappearing and return-
ing again. As we needed provisions, the two Indians
went after them, while I took a circuitous route for camp.
The flock consisted of seven, which I observed moving
about the top of a ridge in leisurely fashion for some
time; they were all females and three of them very
young.

On my return to camp at dusk, my Indians had not yet
arrived. At eight o'clock they slowly approached the fire
carrying all the meat of two sheep. They had mistaken
the road, and had come across an American campo (tent)
where they had discovered a sack half-full of onions and
another with potatoes. Pedro told me that the doctor
had helped himself from each sack and asked me whether
I would eat them. As I answered him with a decided
negative, he said they would eat them.

It was not edifying to see my men consume the stolen
goods, but as the heavy burden of meat they carried had
made it impossible for them to take away with them any
great quantity, I told them that Americans were buenos
(generous) and probably would not mind. But I was
very much put out when the next day, as we were filling
our barrels at the tinajas of the Cabeza Prieta, I made the
disagreeable discovery that we had two buckets instead
of one. "A quel [the doctor] took it from the Americans,"

324 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

Pedro said. When I remarked reproachfully that this
was not right and asked him with what the Americans on
their return would fill their barrels, he answered: "The
doctor said there were six or seven and, as the Americans
did not need them all, he carried off one." What can
one do under such circumstances to satisfy the require-
ments of ethics ? Travelling alone in the wilderness with
two Indians, I was to a certain extent in their power, and
was forced to act diplomatically; we were too far away
to return the bucket, for our supply of flour would soon be
exhausted and our animals had to be considered.

There are said to be as many as eight pools at Ca-
beza Prieta, each higher than the other. The four lower
ones were empty, and the water had to be scooped down
from above from one to the other, so that we could fill
our barrels and that our animals might drink. It is
tedious and rather primitive to have to depend on tinajas
for one's existence, and these were even less accessible
than usual, the entrance being through a narrow canon.
On entering this I had noticed six heaps of stones
placed in a row as if to show the way to the water and
had been made by the Indians long ago. Later on, at
the pass near Tinaja del Tule, I saw six much smaller
stone heaps, five of them forming a circle ten feet in di-
ameter. The sixth pile was outside of the ring toward
the west, separated from the rest by the same distance
as that between each of the others.

The day surprised us by being actually rainy, foggy,
and chilly, and the mountain tops were hidden in mist.
The showers came usually from the south-east and would

Sierra del Rosario, northern part

Cabeza Prieta Range. An interior, looking westward. A dry arroyo at

the bottom

AN AGREEABLE RETURN

325

last only a few minutes, occurring intermittently, but
toward six o'clock we had some heavier rain, and when
we camped we were wet as well as our baggage. Three
days later, on Sunday, March 27, we arrived again at
Tinaja de los Papagos. The aspect of the landscape
around the arroyo in which our camp was placed had
changed much during our absence; it was like summer
now, the mezquites were in their beautiful foliage and
blossom, and the light-yellow flowers — yellower than
lemon — of the palo verde were very conspicuous, making
the arroyo yellow and green. The camp gave me quite
a feeling of home. My tent looked agreeably white, clean,
and comfortable among the trees, and the members of the
expedition who had remained behind received us warmly.
Guadalupe made tortillas and we were treated to a fa-
mous stew of mountain-sheep that tasted good though
it was cooked in only half an hour, the last onion having
been reserved for the occasion.

It had been a very hazy day; distant mountains stood
enveloped in a thin mist and sand was raised on the
llanos by an increasingly strong southern gale which
sprang up during the afternoon. At sunset it abated in
force and turned south-easterly. Though the air felt
damp, the moon shone brightly when I retired for the
night; ten minutes later, at nine o'clock, I was surprised
by the falling of a few drops of rain on my tent. The sky
was now overcast and threatening, so we had to prepare
for a rainy night. Hardly had we covered up the bag-
gage, a matter of five minutes, when a light breeze from
the north cleared the sky and it was calm again. Thus

326 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

ended the little shower of the desert which had been
born from the atmospheric disturbances of a whole day.

I had been away with the two Indians for thirteen days,
our burros travelling nearly one hundred and fifty miles,
and during that time we had called for water only at two
places, Tinajas Altas and Tinajas de la Cabeza Prieta,
but our animals returned in good condition. I had
learned at least one thing on this short expedition, and
that is that donkeys are without comparison the best ani-
mals for exploration of the American desert. Remark-
ably strong and very hardy for their size, they are con-
tented with humble fare, making themselves at home in
any camp the traveller may choose in that arid region.
Their first move is to caress each other's necks, while the
horses stand about sulky and discontented; next they
find some bushes or leaves of trees or odd-looking plants
to eat, and in the winter three days without water does not
trouble them. They know how to take care of themselves
and, having once been shown a waterhole, they do not have
to be led to it again, but go thither at their pleasure;
horses usually have to be driven to the hole again and
again. Donkeys do not stray much and in the morning
the traveller will nearly always find them all together
ready to continue the journey. The more a burro is
loaded, the faster it walks, in order to reach camp so
much the sooner. The burro is not as rough to ride as
one would expect; a few have a gait as pleasant as that of
a good mule, but it must be confessed that there are draw-
backs to its use under the saddle. It is slower than a
horse or a mule and, although far more intelligent than

EULOGY OF THE DONKEY 327

either, it is stubborn and difficult to move when one is
anxious to reach a certain point, to take a quick photo-
graph, etc. If riding alone, it is next to impossible to
have one's burro stop more than for a few seconds, as its
sole aim is to be close to its mates. In order to take
down notes one either has to dismount or stop the pack
train. This drawback could be remedied by having a
man following on another burro. And if the traveller
knows how to accommodate himself to various conditions,
he will find this animal invaluable for certain kinds of
exploration.

My two Indians, though not altogether pleasant com-
panions, had served me as well as could be expected. As
a packer and manager of our outfit Pedro had done good
work, even measured by a white man's standard. He
was a fair cook, though too stubborn and set in his ways
to accept any advice. He was able to repair anything
well that might get out of order on such a trip, and he did
all his work with incredible quickness. He had taught
himself to cut hair and exercised his dexterity on my
head to my entire satisfaction. Being furthermore a good
tracker and an excellent shot, he would make an admir-
able servant on any expedition but for his bad tem-
per; he was inclined unexpectedly to say disagreeable
things, but, if he were met by a decided countenance,
would in a few minutes be pleasant in manners and in
speech. It was impossible to get any ethnological infor-
mation from him, owing to his great disinclination to dis-
cuss Indians and their affairs. He was taciturn, and what
he had to say he uttered in a very low voice. Not much

328 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

escaped his watchful eyes, however, and his physiognomy
betrayed brutality and cruelty, though he was not without
tender feelings, as evidenced when he did not want to cut
down a palo fierro in which he discovered a little bird had
its nest. His courage was undisputed, and if he liked a
white man he would in case of danger stand by him to
his last breath.

Doctor Pancho, the medicine-man, had rather an en-
gaging, humorous face. He was always ready to serve
and he, too, was quick in his actions. He had an ener-
getic disposition and did good service in finding wood
quickly, grinding coffee, boiling meat, cleaning pigeons,
and such work. He was even-tempered, and only once,
when I, after having lost my note-book, had to ask him
some questions over again in regard to local names, did
he rise up in dignified wrath, saying with much feeling
that he had given me this in four books, and if I wanted
to hear it again I would have to ask somebody else.
But, taking it all in all, he was willing to give information,
and, what was more, gave it correctly, which was much to
be thankful for. There was a certain slyness about him,
and the Indians were afraid of him as a sorcerer. His
mind was always on the alert for something that might
prove useful to him. He used to pick up discarded papers
and put them away for safe-keeping. He was not very
good in following tracks, but knew how to trap wild ani-
mals, and the rapid and dexterous manner in which he
prepared them for eating reminded me of the ways of the
Australian savages. His ideas about property were not
highly developed and, though he was a man of a much

NOTES ON THE SAND PEOPLE 329

nicer disposition than Pedro, in an emergency I think I
should rather trust myself to the brutal sagacity of the
latter.

Judging from these two and from a third one, Agustin,
that I knew, the sand people were not a pleasant lot to
deal with. They were rapacious and probably merciless
to strangers, whether Indians or Mexicans. Agustin was
a distant, disagreeable kind of a man, whose confidence
it would take years to win. According to Mexican ac-
counts, the arenenos formerly made the roads dangerous
to pass, and nobody could follow them into the sand dunes
to their principal retreat at Pinacate.

These Papagoes were called Hiatit Ootam, "sand
people. " According to my companion, the medicine-man
Pancho, who spent his early life in the dunes, they were
not many in number and used to travel all together.
He asserted that a peculiar disease accompanied by the
vomiting of "yellow and green and then blood'' killed
most of those natives, and thought that it was brought
from Yuma. The course of the disease took from four to
ten days. It probably is the same affliction that is men-
tioned on the Papago calendar stick (page 74) as having
occurred in 1851. The remaining four families decided
to retire to other parts and for the last forty or fifty years
the sand dune country has been uninhabited. These
natives probably never exceeded in number one hundred
and fifty all told, and their head-quarters were at Hotuni-
kat (sunset), south of Pinacate. The great annual feast,
now given at Quitovac, was removed from the Pinacate
region before my informant's time — thus at least over

33Q NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

seventy years ago — because the old men who had charge
of the ceremonial objects of the feast had died, and it
was decided that the latter should be taken care of at
Quitovac.

These sand people were intelligent, healthy, and able-
bodied, and managed to make a good living in an abso-
lute desert. Their existence depended upon the knowl-
edge of the few places in the mountain ranges, not even
one in each range, where rain fills the tinajas, as well as
of the few places along the coast where water can be found
by digging for it. Once where to look for water is known,
the difficulties in making a living out there are not so
great as one would expect. In hot weather they followed
jack-rabbits in the loose sand until the latter were ex-
hausted, and caught muskrats by burning the accumu-
lations of cactus spines with which those animals keep
enemies away from their burrows. They also killed
mountain-sheep, which were not a difficult quarry, with
their bows and arrows, especially in the large craters, and
they were even able to approach mule-deer and antelope
near enough to kill them by the same weapon. Lizards
were eaten. At certain seasons they went to the coast
for the fishing, catching as many fish as they wished.

A single agricultural site may be attributed to the
sand people, called Suvuk, south-east of Tinajas de
Emilia, in Pinacate. Maize, squashes, and beans were
planted here by means of a stick, on a very small scale,
but the majority of these people had no agriculture what-
ever. They found good edible plant food in the dunes,
especially ammobroma sonorce, the wonderful camotes

NATURAL CONDITIONS 331

which the Indians knew how to gather all the year round,
though after May that part of the plant which is above
ground withers away. They had their season of chia and
used to come as far as Quitovaquita and Santo Domingo
to gather mezquite beans (called by the Mexicans pechita)
and eat sahuaro and pitahaya. Near all the tinajas are
seen round holes from six to ten inches deep, made into
the solid rock, in which these Indians pounded mezquite
beans. Their pestles are frequently found. The beans
of the palo fierro were toasted, ground, and consumed as
pinole. After the scanty winter rains the juicy plant of
the sand dunes, Oenothera tricbocalyx, was boiled and eaten.

The clothing of these people was made from the skin
of mule-deer, antelope, or mountain-sheep. The hair was
first removed with a bone taken from the lower foreleg
of the animal, and the skin was smeared with the brains.
The root of the torote tree, crushed and left in water, fur-
nished necessary material for the tanning process. The
man wore shirt and breech cloth, the woman a short skirt.
They killed sea lions on the rocks by hitting them on
the nose, and from their skins sandals and straps were
cut. From the badger's hair they were able to plait
ribbons for the hair and make twine to be used for the
breech cloth. Women wore sandals, but no hair ribbons.
The skirt was kept up by strings of buckskin.

The burden basket was not used, but they made carry-
ing nets as well as pottery, material for which is abundant
on the coast. Baskets were manufactured from torote,
willow, and bulrushes. In order to make bows, these
Indians travelled as far as the Colorado River to get

332 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

willow as material. Arrows were made from the arrow-
bush. Arrow-points of hard stone have occasionally been
found in that country, but never stone axes.

They had foot-races and also practised the game of
throwing with the end of a thin pole two short pieces of
wood which are linked together. (Page 89.) In the
winter time they lived at a higher elevation in the moun-
tains where they erected grass huts. Once a year a jour-
ney was made to Yuma to barter with the Indians there,
and maize, tepari beans, and squashes were exchanged
for baskets and sea-shells. Remnants of these people are
living at Quitovaquita and the Growler Well, both places
in Arizona. A few families are said to live near the rail-
way station, Adonde, near Wellton, on the Southern Pacific
line.

CHAPTER XXI

AN INDIAN HERMIT— ABORIGINAL COOKING— AGAIN IN SONOITA
—ANCIENT VILLAGE SITES AROUND THE ALTAR RIVER— A
REMEDY FOR SNAKE BITES— I ARRIVE AT AJO, ARIZONA— GILA
BEND RESERVATION— AN ANCIENT FORTRESS— THE MARICOPA
INDIANS— THE WAYS OF CIVILIZATION— THE PIMA INDIANS—
CASA GRANDE— ITS BUILDERS— RETURN TO CIVILIZATION

As we started back for Sonoita, Caravajales, the
Indian hermit of Los Papagos, joined us. He owns a
burro and a horse and plants a little maize, besides rais-
ing a few squashes and watermelons. He catches fish
on the coast also, but camotes, the "roots of the sands,"
form his principal means of subsistence. In fact he lives
almost entirely on these camotes, and is able to find
them out of season. He often goes without food for
days, which does not trouble him, as he is the proud
possessor of a canteen and in his travels is never without
water. He confided his secrets and domestic troubles to
Guadalupe, who told me about them. When his wife left
him a few years before, he decided to go back again to live
in the medanos where he was born. Once a year he
visits Sonoita to see relatives and to get drunk. There is
no harm in the elderly man, but neither is he sympathetic.
He is thin, rather bald, and almost completely deaf, but
seems to be healthy. Recently he had been in Quitova-
quita for two days and had remained without eating dur-

333

334 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

ing that time; then he had ridden to get the camotes for
three days more without food.

On the slopes of the lava plateau north of Pinacate
there was a notable increase in the number of the white
choyas (opuntia fulgida), which looked at their best
among scattered greasewoods and other bushes. Often
at a distance I mistook them for the white or gray shirts
of my men. At least six times I noticed branches of
greasewood cut off and lying on the ground. This was,
according to Pancho, the medicine-man, the work of jack-
rabbits, which eat both branches and leaves. The Ind-
ians in the evening cooked one of these animals in hot
ashes covered with earth, on top of which a fire was made.
The "doctor" prepared it for cooking by breaking its
legs with a stick (a matter of a few seconds) and then
singeing the hair of the whole body over the fire. He
had first cut off the ears, for they are considered a great
delicacy, and put them aside to be eaten by him later.
The meat of the jack-rabbit is much coveted by the
Papagos, who often run these animals down on horse-
back. Parties are sometimes gotten up for this kind of
hunting.

On reaching Sonoita nearly all the members of the
expedition were allowed to depart, each taking home a
sack of dried mountain-sheep meat, and I began to
make various excursions in the neighborhood, once go-
ing as far as Altar. While driving, one of our pair of
mules actually stepped across a fine large rattlesnake. I
expected to see it strike, for there was no time to stop as
the reptile was entwined between the mule's feet, but

ANTIQUITIES ON THE ALTAR RIVER 335

for a wonder, they did not touch it and the snake made
its escape calmly without even the usual rattling.

I visited several ancient village sites in the Altar River
valley. One, at the ranch of Llano Blanco, on the bank
of the Magdalena River, just before its junction with
the Altar River, was a mile long and a quarter of a
mile broad. Thousands of pieces of hard stones, chipped
away in the making of weapons or implements, were lying
on the ground, and for six miles from there on until the
Ventana ranch is reached, numbers of potsherds were seen,
which may also be observed for a greater distance up
the river. Numerous well-made stone objects have been
found here as well as at Pitiquito, farther down the Altar
River. Small stone images have been encountered in
this valley; one, about four and a half inches high, made
of a chocolate-brown stone much like jade in texture,
was picked up by a vaquero on the ground near Pitiquito.
Large bracelets of shell have been found here, and also
some peculiar antiquities consisting of stone bars or
ceremonial wands, most of them cylindrical in shape
and pointed at the ends, which I discovered in houses
of the Mexicans as far west as the ranch Chireones, fifteen
miles from Altar.

In the District of Altar I heard very favorable reports
of a remedy for bites of snakes and scorpions. The secret
was conveyed to me for the benefit of the world at large,
and my informant had learned it thirty years before from
an Indian. The remedy consists of the excrements of
a leaf-eating ant (pogonomyrmex barbatus), common in
those parts and called mochomo, and a plant called golon-

336 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

drina. There are two kinds of golondrina, and it is the
small one {amphorbia polycarpa) from the low mountains
that is used, and not the one that grows two or three feet
high in the cultivated fields. The two ingredients should
be crushed, alcohol added, and the thick mixture applied
to the wound and held there by a bandage. The pain
should subside at once with this treatment. The addi-
tion of leaves of the red-flowering oleander (in Spanish
called laurel) is said to be an improvement. But the
mochomo by itself is maintained to be wonderfully effec-
tive. Perhaps the fact that the ants feed on the leaves
of the greasewood, which are very antiseptic, may have
something to do with the efficaciousness of the remedy.
As my authority was an intelligent and judicious Mexican,
an examination by a competent judge, especially of the
mochomo, which is easily procured anywhere in that re-
gion, would seem to be warranted.

On my return to civilization from Sonoita, I crossed the
boundary into Arizona, stopping first at Ajo, the name of
an apparently great copper mine, on which work had been
temporarily abandoned. Contrary to expectation, it is
from the point of view of scenery a beautiful place,
situated as it is among picturesque-looking hills. Even
at a considerable distance, coming from the south, large
streaks of green on some of the hill-tops due to the
prevalence of copper are plainly visible. The weather
was very warm for twelve days, and from the 24th of
May till the 4th of June an average maximum tem-
perature of nearly 1060 F. was shown. The highest
temperature was 1170 F. on the 30th of May. When

SEEING THE LAST OF THE PAPAGOES 337

it attained this point the sensation was that of walking
between great fires. However, the heat, being very dry,
was quite bearable and the nights were pleasant.

At Gila Bend railroad station I camped in a Mexican
corral, and found my camp agreeable on account of the
abundance of clear and easily accessible water, which was
all the more satisfying after my long absence from civil-
ized comforts of any kind. I continued my journey to a
small reservation for the Papago Indians north of there,
camping at the well of the Pelon rancheria under the
shade of a clump of large mezquites. From here I made
a visit to an ancient village known under the name of
"The Fortress" (jortin in Spanish). Crossing the wide
river-bed of the Gila River, on the banks of which bata-
motes grew exuberantly, the village is found on top of a
detached hill, which was admirably adapted for defence,
being protected on the side easiest of access by a stone wall
two hundred yards long, from six to eight feet high and
from four to five feet wide, running east and west. The
houses, like the wall, are made of stones well set without
masonry. One of the largest houses measured sixteen
by twenty feet, and the walls were three feet thick in all of
them. A dozen dwellings were found outside of the wall,
and nearly thirty were counted inside, standing in irregu-
lar groups. The Papagoes call the fortress kokulisik
(kokuli, corral).

The Gila Bend Reservation consists of three ran-
cherias: Pelon, or "lower village"; Tesota, or "second
village," and an "upper village," which has only a Papago
name, Siilimok ("burnt saddle"). There are about

338 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

three hundred souls in all of them. In the "upper vil-
lage" I found most of the people away harvesting wheat
for the Pimas, for these Papago Indians are not restricted
to the reservation.

Arriving at the agricultural settlements on the Gila
River, I felt as if I had come to another country. Miles
of waving wheat and alfalfa fields and the smell of humid
earth, all brought about by the magic of irrigation, were
a delightful demonstration of the remarkable agricultural
possibilities of certain portions of the great western desert.

The agency of the Maricopa Indians was next reached.
It is in the western corner of the Gila River Reservation
and presented an attractive appearance situated among
cultivated fields in the height of mid-summer. These
were not Indian fields, as one would expect, but belonged
to white farmers who owned, I was told, four of the irri-
gating ditches, while the Indians had one. The land set
apart for the latter is not good — only fair — but by heavy
irrigation the Indians manage to make the alkaline soil
serviceable.

A comfortable looking cottage with red tiled roof
and a shady veranda on a spacious greensward indicated
where the agent lived, while at some distance from the
house I noticed a number of shelves on the wall under the
porch, built one above the other, and, at a casual glance,
there appeared to be photographs placed there for sale,
but as I passed through the gate I discovered that these
were rows of medicine bottles within a large open closet.
A drug store in the land of sunshine and good cheer!
The idea of disease seemed wholly anomalous in this dry

THE WHITE AND THE RED MAN 339

air, bracing in spite of the noon-day heat. I knew, of
course, that the Indians had acquired consumption since
their contact with the whites, but I was puzzled to learn
what other diseases this array of medicines was intended
for. So I stepped up to a young, pleasant looking man,
who was grooming his horses in a shed near by and who
turned out to be the agent. "Are the Maricopa a healthy
race ?" I inquired. "No, I don't think so; there is much
disease here." "So you need all that medicine which I
see on the porch?" "Yes, indeed; there has been an
epidemic of measles and we still have ten cases, though
whooping cough is now the great trouble, for it often de-
velops into bronchial pneumonia and kills many, and we
have had to close the day school. There is always con-
sumption here, and I often have to treat syphilitic ulcers,"
he added as he concluded the distressing list of the effects
of the so-called civilization on the surviving three hundred
members of a once healthy tribe.

The Pima Indians, for whose benefit the larger part
of the Gila River Reservation was set aside, are not
dying out, in spite of having suffered much from the
whites, who have been known to divert the river water,
the source of life to the Indians who live farther down
its course. Their number is rather on the increase.
According to information furnished me by the agent at
Sacaton, there were living on the Gila River Reserva-
tion in June, 1909, 4,086 Pima, 203 Papago, and 33J
Maricopa Indians. They are an industrious people and
virile, though of a mild, even disposition. Since the
first days of the coming of the whites, they were of as-

340 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

sistance to them, showing as much kindness to the early
explorers, pioneers, and gold seekers as the Apaches ex-
hibited hostility. They used to raise cotton, which they
still do to a small extent, and although they made blank-
ets as late as forty years ago, spinning and weaving
have been abandoned. Their basketry was noted for
good workmanship, though it was inferior to that of the
Apache, but since their contact with whites the art has
much deteriorated. Small circular storehouses of twisted
rolls of arrow-bush may be noticed outside some of the
dwellings. Similar structures for the storage of mezquite
beans may be seen on the roofs. At Gila Crossing a
surprising number of old-fashioned round grass huts
were observed.

There are several ancient ruins in or near the coun-
try occupied at the present day by the Pima, the most
important of which is the noted Casa Grande which has
often been described. The walls, from three and a half
to four feet or more thick, are made of big blocks of
earth or grout which when dried become as hard as
stone. The rafters are of cedar and the rooms are sym-
metrical; three stories remain, but there were four orig-
inally. I viewed with much interest the work that lately
had been done for the United States Government to re-
deem the original features of this place, thereby assist-
ing any one at all concerned in the history of this con-
tinent to get a clear idea of the doings of the ancient
people. Gratifying and necessary as is the preservation
of what remained of the principal part of the ruins, it
seems a pity that the shed erected for the purpose could

AN ABORIGINAL MONUMENT 341

not have been made large enough to permit a less ob-
structed view of the grand building. It should have
been higher and wider. I suppose economic considera-
tions may have had something to do with the arrange-
ment that comes dangerously near preserving the ruin
out of sight. At any rate, its imposing character is lost.
Nevertheless, it is to be hoped that the ruins, now that
they have been cleared of debris and present a compre-
hensible example of ancient American architecture and
life, will be made an objective point for visits of people
interested in the early history of America. It is now
possible to walk around in the well-preserved rooms
where the Jesuit Father Kino said mass in 1694, the
same year that the ruins were discovered. Visitors will
however, go further back and marvel at the skill of the
ancient builders, although, if measured by modern stand-
ards, faults may be found in the construction. An ex-
hibition of implements and weapons found during the
clearing up of the debris adds to the interest.

The stone implements unearthed here are of the same
general character as the ancient ones which I collected in
the present-day Papagueria. A large stone scraper and
a double-edged axe appear identical with specimens
which were secured by me farther south in Arizona, and
which I do not believe were made by the ancestors of the
present Pima and Papago Indians. It is noteworthy that
wooden hoes were unearthed at Casa Grande which seem
to be exactly the same kind as those until quite recently
used by the Papago, of which I was able to collect several
specimens in the Santa Rosa valley, south of Kohatk.

342 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

Their presence at Casa Grande does not in my opinion
necessarily imply that the ancestors of the present oc-
cupants of that region had anything to do with the build-
ing of this noble structure. Granted that the methods
of its makers were thoroughly aboriginal and even crude,
it is a far step from the Pima and Papago dome-shaped
grass huts, practical as they are in the desert, to the four
story, thick-walled building in question. The decorative
art of these two native peoples as compared, for instance,
with that of the Pueblo Indians, is mediocre, and their
handicraft in workmanship and finish does not even
equal that of some of the western tribes who live under
similar conditions. This certainly indicates a consider-
ably lower state of culture than that suggested by the
beautifully symmetrical, polished stone implements which
have been found at Casa Grande and other ruins and
ancient village sites of the region south of the Gila River,
and farther south and east than the Altar River in Sonora.
The lack of architectural skill evinced by the Pima and
the Papago and their little developed aesthetic sense
seem to me utterly at variance with the theory that the
tribe or tribes in question built the Casa Grande. Its
builders must be sought among their predecessors in the
Papagueria.

The trip from the ruins to the Casa Grande railroad
station was made leisurely and in a short time. Arriv-
ing there at sunset, I camped back of the houses among
several small parties of teamsters, mainly Indians. The
next morning I had a good wash-up and put on my best
apparel so that my personal appearance should be more

COMFORT VS. CIVILIZATION 343

in harmony with the conventionalities of civilization.
Two hours' travel on the Southern Pacific Railway
brought me again into Tucson. I had no difficulty in
getting accommodation at the best hotel, and was treated
with much courtesy, but the discomfort of having to
sleep within four walls, which a cloudless day had heated
up to an abnormal degree, was too much for me. Every-
thing I touched in my room was warm, and I felt as if
I were in a Turkish bath with no breath of air to relieve
the tension. People in half torpor were lying on their
beds with their doors open. The temperature of the
air outside was not unusually high, but the house had
been built without any regard to climatic conditions.
Dwellings for human occupancy in countries where such
high temperature prevails should not be constructed as
they are in colder regions. This is a very common fault,
and people are apt to look upon the discomfort brought
about by man's thoughtlessness as unavoidable or to ac-
cept it as inscrutably providential. To shut out air and
make no provision against a heat wave that lasts for
months is not civilization; its aim should be to make
everybody independent of exterior circumstances and
comfortable in all latitudes. Fond as I am of civilized
life and all it implies, as I gasped for air during those
restless hours I could not help longing for the fresh,
cool, beautiful, and silent nights of my wild desert.

CHAPTER XXII

PHYSICAL AND MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PAPAGO—
EFFECTS OF CONTACT WITH WHITE MAN— MARITAL RELA-
TIONS—WOMAN'S HIGH POSITION— INDUSTRIES— DIVISIONS OF
THE TRIBE— RELIGION AND MYTHS— RACES AND GAMES-
FIGHTS WITH APACHES— SHAM BATTLES— PRESENT CONDI-
TIONS AND PROSPECTS OF THE PAPAGO

To the characteristics of the Papago which have al-
ready been given, I shall add here some observations and
notes which may help to complete the picture of his
present status as well as of his past.

These Indians are naturally very healthy and many
grow to be a hundred years old or more. A few years
ago a woman who went out to gather pitahaya returned
with the basket on her head full of fruit and a new-
born babe in her arms. The total weight probably was
not less than forty or fifty pounds. The heaviest bas-
kets, when loaded with the juicy cactus fruits, may weigh
as much as a hundred pounds. A native Indian is less
affected by inflammatory processes than a white person;
wounds heal by first intention. The following case, al-
though referring to a Pima Indian, may properly be
mentioned here, as the Papago are of the Pima tribe.
A woman in childbirth was unable to deliver the placenta;
but she recovered in a few days, though an American
doctor, who saw her, expressed the belief that she would
die.

344

Papago: Guadalupe, my companion from Quitovac

Papago: Miguel, medicine man from La Nariz

Parents: Chinaman and Yaqui

Parents: Spaniard and Papago

QUALITIES OF BARBAROUS MAN 345

The men frequently have slight moustaches. At
present the men all have their hair cut short, but a lux-
uriant growth was formerly considered a standard of
beauty. It was occasionally washed with an infusion
from the roots of a vine called adofi. Sometimes these
natives would plaster the head with clay, to kill para-
sites and ensure a better growth of hair. The women
still take great care of this ornament to their persons and
are often seen brushing it with brushes made from the
roots of sacaton grass. With the children, it is cut so
that it may grow strong, and the cut hair is twisted into
a cord which is used in tying together parts of the bur-
den basket as well as in the tying of the saddle-bag.
Formerly the custom was to leave the children's hair
long on top of the head, back of the neck, and in front
of each ear. I saw a left-handed man and a left-handed
woman in the tribe. If it be permissible to draw any
general conclusions from the sound sleep of my com-
panion, Pablo, these natives sleep unusually soundly.
One morning, while he was with me, he woke up several
yards below his bedding, having rolled down a declivity
during the night in his sleep. The Papago avoid eating
food hot from the fire.

They possess much force and stability of character,
are quick of perception, loyal to the white man that
they like, and if in danger do not cry for help. Under
her natural bashfulness the woman hides sterling quali-
ties of efficiency in household work, constancy, and faith-
ful adherence to duty. These Indians are industrious
and have a remarkably even temper; thirty children

346 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

may be seen playing harmoniously together, where a
similar gathering of small Caucasians would soon result
in discord, fights, and tears. The children and young
girls have three kinds of chewing gum; the one which is
most commonly used has been mentioned already, an-
other is procured from the pod of a vine which comes
early and dries in July; by squeezing the pod a milk is
secured which when boiled yields a gummy substance.
These natives never shake hands; they come and go and
are never obtrusive. In the circumstances under which
I travelled, I liked that custom; it made me feel inde-
pendent and equally polite. When an Indian comes to
shake hands with me, I know he has changed his mode
of life, for one may be sure that he learned that cus-
tom from Americans or Mexicans. Their language is
not sonorous, as it is full of guttural sounds and half-
pronounced syllables. Four is their sacred number.

In the autumn of 1909 there was a mild epidemic of
an eye disease among the Papagoes of Sonora as far
west as La Nariz. The eyes were red and inflamed, as
in conjunctivitis, and the pain evidently was very great.
They probably contracted this disease from the Mexicans.

In his changed habits of life, inhabiting houses that
do not admit air and adopting clothes that debilitate his
magnificent physique, the Papago, when he catches cold,
is unable to throw it off in the same way that a white
man does. It very often develops into pneumonia and
consumption, which awful disease is the scourge of the
tribe, nine out of ten deaths being due to tuberculosis.
The children bring it from school and even old people

TOO SUDDEN A TRANSITION 347

die from it, having acquired it through contagion.
Although in no way a prison as to its restrictions,
nevertheless the school as at present conducted does
them harm physically. The confinement to which they
have not been accustomed seems to undermine their
health. In these days of advanced methods of teach-
ing some remedy for this condition no doubt will be
found. One absolutely necessary change is to alter the
construction of the school-houses so as to make them
sanitary through unlimited access of air. Even the
Presbyterian Mission, which has been of considerable
benefit to the Indian, has erected outside of Tucson
incredibly inappropriate buildings, made of brick and
substantial, to be sure, but singularly out of place in the
glare and heat of the Arizona desert. Prof. R. H.
Forbes, of Arizona University, told me that in the White
Mountain Apache school, at White River, ninety per
cent of the children have tuberculosis, chiefly glandular.
This statement was made to him by the physician in
charge. Would it not be better to leave the Indians un-
educated than to proceed in this manner ?

Not long ago the makai (medicine-men) had as many
as five wives each, while the usual number for the ordi-
nary man was two. At present it is very rare to find a
Papago with more than one wife, and the average num-
ber of children in a family is usually no less than eight,
but the mortality among infants is great. The position
of woman is equality with man. To be sure, the man
never carries burdens— that is relegated to the woman's
domain— but she is the mistress of the house. She is,

348 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

in fact, the "boss" of the household and gives her hus-
band as well as her child his portion of food. She is
systematic, while the man, in whom the characteristics
of the hunter still survive, has little or no order. Her
vigilant eyes look after everything and she is consulted
in all transactions. The dogs follow the woman and be-
long to her, the husband rarely speaking to them.

Sometimes a young man will marry a woman more
than old enough to be his mother since, under the
changed conditions of the tribe, many of the young fel-
lows do not know how to take care of themselves. He
may work for an elderly woman who owns cattle and
behave so much to her satisfaction that marriage results,
and women have in this way been known to make manly
men out of flippant youngsters. The children are treated
kindly by the parents and are kind to each other.

Formerly a bamboo flute was played by a young
man, especially in the evening, to attract the attention
of a girl, though the ultimate choice of a partner rested
with his father and mother. Up to recent times the
sons were obedient to their parents and readily con-
sented to marry the girls picked out for them. A son
was instructed how to behave in order to find favor with
a nice girl with whom appearances weigh little compared
to the noble qualities of being a good hunter, not lazy,
and an efficient agriculturist. It is the girl's father who
makes the first advances in a matrimonial venture. He
talks the matter over with the father of the boy who,
however, sometimes may decline. But if the father is
able to say that his son is willing, the latter betakes him-

CHOOSING A WIFE

349

self to the girl's house and stays there four nights. Her
mother then takes her to the bridegroom's home and
leaves her there. No services of the medicine-man are
necessary; if they mutually agree to live as husband and

PIMA SONG

USED WHEN THE YOUNG GIRLS COME OF AGE

fflE

f=£

■=t

Oi - no - pa - ne no-no - vang - a

Name of a mountain, usually called Oinopat, mountains

near Tempe, Arizona (poetical designation; in prose: tuak)

:2:

=1:

Hon - yo - la - mo kiik

(in prose: hodyoli)
alone

i - va

stands

kon - ge - td - mo

(in prose: kdgetam)

end

kil - VO
hill

■\r& -± !-

tam - haing - a

(in prose: tamhaing)

top

-*- -w
of - vi

woman

Shas - i

5=\-

-*—=(*

nju - ke-nam kdi - nju - na
(in prose: njuketam) (in prose: kaitsh)
talk lor sing) (seems)

hi - mo kvi - mo

(no expressible meaning)

This song may still be heard among the Papago, e. g., at Anekam rancheria
in Santa Rosa valley, but it originated from the Pima.

wife, they remain in the house of the young man's father
until the latter's death. The son may make a house for
himself near by, but he helps his father in his work. If
the girl does not like the boy, she may walk back to her
parents. Conferences between the fathers will then ensue
to try to adjust matters and, until recently, sometimes the

350 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

father of the girl would decide to whip her with a rope
of rawhide to bring her to the proper way of thinking.

Certain periods of female life are looked upon with
awe, even by the civilized Papago. If a hunter touches
a woman at these times he will have bad luck or con-
tract some disease. Formerly a girl in this condition
could not touch her hair. If she wanted to scratch her-
self, it would have to be done with a stick, and even her
brother could not touch his hair. When the girls come
of age, dancing and singing are kept up for many nights
in succession in a very fatiguing fashion, as neither rest
nor food is taken. No intoxicating drinks are partaken
of, and one marvels at the exertions that primitive man
finds it necessary to undertake in order that the girl may
be started right in life. Formerly these ceremonies, each
time lasting four nights, had to be performed on four oc-
casions, and even thus the girl has to go for a few days'
seclusion to the bobolikaki, a house specially set apart
for women considered temporarily impure. The dan-
cing on such occasions consists of a forward and back-
ward rhythmical movement of two rows of men and
women facing each other and at the same time slowly
moving in a circle. The participants hold each other
by the hand, and the movements are in time with the
singing, four steps forward and four backward. In Quito-
vac where the Indians have been much influenced by
the Mexicans, although they have given up the dancing
part of the performances, the singing is kept up for eight
nights or more in succession.

When the woman feels that her hour is approaching,

Pima granary. Made from twisted
arrow bush

HUT FOR THE ISOLATION OF WOMEN

Papago: "Rainbow," from La Xariz

THE NAME DAY 351

she takes up her abode in the hoholikaki where she re-
mains for over three weeks. She bears her child ac-
croupie assisted by her mother or elder sister; sometimes
an elderly woman is specially chosen for this, acting as
midwife. Formerly, for six days thereafter, the food was
made for the mother and brought to her, the diet for
the first two days consisting of atole bianco, a kind of
thin gruel made of maize or sometimes wheat, mixed
with the seeds of the sahuaro fruit. Now, in imitation
of Mexican custom, the period is extended to twenty
days. The husband during this time uses a different
gourd from the rest of the family when he drinks water.
Twenty days after the wife has returned from her
seclusion the medicine-man comes to the house to give
the baby clay to eat and present it with a name. The
clay has the same name, pit, as that used in pottery
making, and it does not look in anywise different. In
the afternoon, after having mixed a small quantity with
water and placed the mixture in a sea-shell on the ground,
he takes up a position east of it, while the parents, with
the infant, stand to the west. He walks four times
toward them, the last time hooting low like an owl.
The parents have to take the drink first, then the baby.
If the child is male, the medicine-man gives it to the
mother first; if it is female the father drinks first. In
administering the drink to the child, he also gives it a
name, which the grandparents previously have agreed
upon; with his eagle plumes he makes passes over the
infant, and with the same object sprinkles some of the
water on its chest, shoulders, and back. The advan-

352 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

tages which the child gains are supposed to be health,
strength, and luck; untoward happenings are also pre-
vented even to the family itself. If the birth occurred
in the season of thunder-storms, the danger to the child,
or a near relative, of being killed by lightning will be
averted. For four days after the ceremony the parents
abstain from eating salt and jack-rabbit meat, and they
must not do much work; the father cannot hunt.

The natural characteristic of the Papago is to be vir-
tuous. According to Indian reports, a woman caught in
adultery used to be punished with death. In recent times
whipping has been the penalty and the custom of killing
her animals still prevails. The tribe has been notably
stable in racial qualities during centuries of contact with
whites. Intermixture to-day rarely takes place except
in Sonora, where the Mexicans have taught the Indians
new customs. In the out-of-the-way places of southern
Arizona a few Americans are known to have Papago
wives; they have children and to all appearances are
known to lead happy lives, for the lady of the house is in-
telligent, quite good-looking, clean, and very industrious.
During my stay at Sonoita several couples came to be
married by the civil authority there.

Murder was left to the family of the murdered person
to punish. From an American who speaks their lan-
guage and lives in the central part of the Papagueria, I
received what I must accept as reliable information with
regard to unnatural vice, which perhaps may be more or
less restricted to that locality. Several startling instances
were told me by him and also by a trustworthy Indian

BASKETRY 353

who was present. Even a married man with full-grown
daughters was subject to this depravity. One young
Indian wanted to dress like a woman, but was prevented
by his father. A Pima Indian, after losing his wife, had
a healthy child by his daughter.

In regard to the industries of the tribe, attention has
already been called to pottery making. Weaving was
formerly practised on a loom lying on the ground, but
the art is now lost. The Papagoes, as well as the Pimas,
are somewhat noted for their basket work, though neither
of them is as clever as the Apache in this respect. They
make trays and bowl-shaped ware for household work
and also some large, deep, water-tight baskets which, from
their principal use, may be termed sahuaro baskets. In
these is gathered the juicy fruit of the sahuaro; the sirup
and water are mixed for wine making and the wine itself
is offered at the festival. They are rare at the present
time. Women are the basket makers and in the best
ware the white material used is produced from strips of
young willow shoots, while the pods of the martynia
(devil's claw), split in two, furnish the black part of the
texture. The good workmanship of old is falling into
decline, and the significance of the decorative designs is
almost entirely forgotten. There is only one woman at
the present time who is able to do first-class basket work,
and she cannot tell what the designs mean. In Sonora
the making of basketry has ceased to exist.

Granary baskets are still in common use in the Santa
Rosa valley. The large ones are made inside of the house,
the small door-opening preventing their removal. The

354 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

material of which they are made was formerly a certain
grass, which may still be used, though generally wheat
straw takes its place. Strips of mezquite bark are em-
ployed in the binding. The granary basket has a flat
cover, made in the same way, which is sealed with mud.
Sometimes it is plastered throughout with mud as a pro-
tection against rats.

The pleasing designs seen in the old baskets are rapidly
disappearing on account of the deplorable lack of aesthetic
sense among those who are eager to buy Papago baskets.
The makers are actually encouraged to insert crude repre-
sentations of men and beasts in preference to the former
beautiful conventionalized designs which the innate ar-
tistic sense of the Indian had evolved. The trader also
teaches the Papago to make the baskets quickly and
cheaply, in order that more money can be made in the
market from ignorant buyers. A society for the preser-
vation of aboriginal American art is of urgent need and
should be attempted even at this late day.

It is difficult to ascertain anything about the origin
or early history of the tribe, beyond the traditions that the
people when returning from across the sea left ceremonial
sticks at Caborca, Quitovaquita, and Santa Rosa.

The tribe is divided into five groups, descent being in
the male line. Their names have lost all meaning; two
of the groups {mam and vav) are known as red-velvet ants
(vokt ohimal) and three {pkul, apap, and apki) as white-
velvet ants (stoa ohimal) * Any animal that has red about

* The so-called velvet ants are females of certain wasps (of the family mutil-
lidae).

a. Dog tracks

d. Sahuaro

b. Turtle

e. Juice falling from the sahuaro
fruit; arrow points

c. Martynia

Designs of Papago baskets

/. Meaning unknown

PRIMITIVE DIVISIONS 355

it belongs to the red people. Members of salt expeditions
formerly painted on their faces the color of the division
to which they belonged. The red people were, according
to mythical tradition, the original owners of the country,
but Elder Brother, Sihu, having been ill-treated by them,
brought the white people from the underworld and after
many big fights the red ones were almost exterminated,
and even to this day they are fewer than the white groups.
Much in the minority are those families whose children
address their father as mamekam or vavekam. The rarest
of the groups is vav, and the most common, apki. The
mounds are attributed to the red people.

The rancherias appear to have a division of their own,
that part of the Papagueria which is comprised within
Arizona being divided into four provinces. Probably the
present District of Altar is included in one of them.
These subdivisions are:

I. Anekam (name derived from a leguminous tree,
an) consists of the rancherias Anekam, Kukomalik, and
Tjuupo; in other words, the upper part of Santa Rosa
valley as far north as the Kohatk people, who are
Pimas.

II. Hohola (meaning of the word unknown) is the
north-western part of the Papagueria. These people
extend west of the Quijotoa range as far as Gila Bend,
including Aktjin rancheria, four or five miles south of the
modern Maricopa railroad station. Their original start-
ing point is said to have been Cacate rancheria and in-
cludes such rancherias as Pozos Muchos, Sauceda, Pozo
Blanco, and Barajita.

356 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

III. Totokvan. ("Those who wear loose breech
cloths." Tokvan, something loose. The designation
alludes to the habit of the people of this section of using
long or loose loin cloths or breech cloths, different from
those worn by the other groups. They are at present
more frequently called by the nickname kikima, smart
ones.) This section comprises most of the Santa Rosa
valley, the Comobabi range, and extends east as far as
San Xavier, which place was settled mainly by people
from Santa Rosa. This is, roughly speaking, the north-
eastern part of the Papagueria.

IV. Kokeloroti (Indian rendering of the Mexican
Tecoloteros; from tecolote, owl). Their original name is
Tjukutkokam Kikam, "owl's cry inhabitants." Tju-
kutko, owl's cry; tjukut, owl, and ko, cry; kikam, in-
habitant, derived from ki, house. These people are said
to have started originally from the rancheria Tecolote, in
Papago Tjukutko, and extend from Indian Oasis south-
ward, comprising such rancherias as Fresnal, Koxikux,
Tecolote, Sepanovak, and Pozo Verde. This section is
approximately the south-eastern part of the Arizona
Papagueria, and, according to the information of a Pa-
pago otherwise trustworthy, also includes the Mexican
Papagoes.

Although the Papago, as we have seen, have elaborate
dancing festivals, their religion is not regulated by ex-
terior observances to such an extent as is the case with
many other Indian tribes, as, for instance, that of the
Pueblo Indians, or of the Huichols of Mexico, whose
whole life is ruled by ceremonies and symbols. Many

CREATION MYTHS 357

still pray to the sun, which they call father. The deities
most mentioned are Elder Brother and Earth Magician.
The first of these is known under two names, iitoi, which
means "to drink it all," and Sihu, which was given him
after the deluge, when he was the first to land. He
helped Earth Magician at the beginning of time to
bring order out of chaos, and may thus be termed the
creator jointly with him. He created deer and other ani-
mals as well as the trees that bear fruit, making strong
roots to hold the trees. He was a great singer. As we
have seen, Baboquivari peak and Pinacate belonged to
him, and here sacred caves, in which he was supposed to
dwell, were devoted to his worship.

In their creation myths there are divergencies, as may
be expected. One version begins:

"In the beginning was Sky and Earth. Sky came
down and embraced the Earth."
Another is rendered thus:

"In the beginning the world was all darkness and
all the time everything was moving around. In that
time there was born a child Tjivurt makai, Earth Magi-
cian, and he began to consider what to do to make the
world quiet. He took up some earth, mixed it with
water, and made a round flat cake which he put down
on the world to calm it, but it was of no avail, for the
earth kept on moving around. He tried to steady it,
moving it back and forth, and in doing so he separated
the earth and the sky. A noise was heard and another
child was born, who was Iitoi. He came to Earth Magi-
cian who asked him where he was born. * Earth is my

358 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

* '.

mother and Sky is my father,' litoi answered. 'Help

me to put the world in order,' Earth Magician asked
him. Iitoi consented to this. They made the sun, the
moon, and the stars, and then in their light they set to
work. Earth Magician took two small beads of per-
spiration, which he changed into two spiders which
walked around the world four times, tying the earth
and the sky together at the edges.

"Then the two magicians made people out of earth
and water, but they turned out to be bad and fought and
killed each other. The makers turned the world over
and made new people, who also killed each other. Four
times in that way they made and unmade their work.
'There is something bad in the world,' they said. Earth
Magician went around making holes with his stick.
Blood came up and washed the earth, and they created
new people. But Earth Magician's people were queer
— some with one leg, others with big ears. Iitoi be-
came angry over this and disowned them. Earth Ma-
gician also was angry and went to the underworld and
stayed there. Iitoi remained here among his people
singing, but they did not like him and killed him on
four occasions, and each time he would be walking about
again the next day."

Characteristic of their social life are two kinds of
races, eight different games for men and three games
for women. The games still flourish but the races are
on the point of disappearing. The most important of
the latter is a foot-race, run by two men, in which a ball
usually made from mezquite wood is kicked along by

FOOT-RACES 359

each contestant. The ball must not be touched by the
hand. One or two men on horseback assist the racers
in finding the balls and give them new ones in case
their own break or accidentally are lost. The last great
race of which I heard was given, eighteen years ago,
east of the Quijotoa Range. According to a Mexican
from Quitovac who was present, the Indians had brought
herds of cattle, mules and horses, clothing and money,
all to serve as betting stakes on the occasion. Fifty odd
Indians kept admirable order. The two runners, who
were nude but for a cloth around the loins and with a
bandanna tied around the head, started northward early
in the afternoon in the direction of Santa Rosa rancheria.
They ran seventeen or eighteen miles before turning back.
One of the runners became tired, which finished the race;
then the assistants picked them up, giving each of them,
in Mexican fashion, a seat behind the saddles of their
horses, and in that way they returned to the starting point
after dark. The winner was about thirty years old ; the
other, about fifty, had some gray hair. If my informant
was correct, thousands of dollars were lost in bets. The
Barajita rancheria alone came out two hundred animals
short, and the Pozo Verde loss was no less. Many of
those who lost had staked all their live-stock and the
women wept. A race of less importance took place in
the same region some seven years ago.

The Papago, as well as the Pima, was able to cope
with the fierce Apaches more efficiently than were the
Spaniards and Mexicans. The young men were trained
from childhood for future combats with the enemy. It

360 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

must not be forgotten what a part the supernatural plays
in the Indian's life; cure for disease is sought less in
remedies than in magic devices, and combat with an
enemy means first of all a fight of magic with magic.
Once, as one of their tales goes, an Apache was com-
pletely surrounded, but the Papagoes feared to attack
him until one of them stepped forward carrying his
shield with its symbolic inscriptions and supposed magic
effect. The Apache fired his rifle at him, but missed
his aim because he was overcome by the shield's magic
power, which even split his thumb, so that he could not
fire straight This was ascertained by the Papagoes
when examining the body of the Apache afterward.
Nevertheless, the education of the boy included as a
matter of course ability to handle arms and the mastery
of all that pertained to making a good warrior. In the
nightly meetings at the council house, he was taught, be-
sides, how to practise for the races and how to hunt. A
considerable amount of sane advice would be imparted to
the young man, and I cannot refrain from quoting here
the late Mr. Frank Russell in his recent memoir* on the
Pima Indians, from whom the Papago segregated long
ago. He describes the exhortations of a Pima father to
his son in the following manner: "If you are wounded
in battle, don't make a great outcry about it like a child.
Pull out the arrow and slip away; or, if hard stricken,
die with a silent throat. Go on the war trail with a
small blanket. It is light and protection enough for

* Twenty-sixth Annual Report 0} the Bureau 0} American Ethnology,
Washington.

ARCH ENEMIES OF THE PAPAGO 361

one aided by the magicians. Inure yourself to the cold
while yet a boy. Fight not at all with your comrades;
preserve your strength for the combat with the Apaches;
then, if brave, will come to you high honor. Be unself-
ish or you will not be welcome at the fire of the friendly;
the selfish man is lonely and his untended fire dies.
Keep your peace when a foolish man addresses the
people. Join not in his imprudent counsellings. Above
all, talk not foolishly yourself. Bathe in the cold water
of the early morning, that you may be prepared for the
purification ceremony after killing an enemy !"

When an Apache campaign was decided upon, there
was much preparation for the fray, and the feasts and
ceremonies connected with the return of a victorious
party were among the most elaborate, foot-races and
gambling forming a part. If the Apaches killed some
of the Papagoes, the former were believed to take the
clouds away, so the Papagoes had to go and kill some
of them in order to bring the clouds back. Sometimes
the Apaches would be discovered in a week, and some-
times a whole month would pass before the encounter.
The provisions consisted of pinole; bows and arrows,
lances and clubs were the weapons, and almost every one
of the party had a shield. The Apaches have been
credited with a superstition about fighting at night, and
the Pimas at least are said to have used this disinclina-
tion to their advantage. On returning, those who had
killed Apaches had to stay away from their houses and
bathe early in the morning before sunrise four times at
intervals of four days. One man was appointed to pro-

362 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

vide them with water and food, of which they partook
sparingly. Meat and salt were forbidden. He would
come by night and they would smoke tobacco together.
The first night was spent in dancing. After sixteen
days' seclusion in this manner, the feast would come off,
but the dieting and abstention on the part of the slayers
lasted sixteen days more. If a man had killed an Apache
before, he did not need to go so far away from the house
or be so rigorous in his diet as the inexperienced young
man.

Sham battles used to be a prominent feature in the
social life of the Papago. The last one was given five
years previous to my visit to Anekam in the Santa Rosa
valley and there was some talk of having one again in
the near future. In these sham battles dummies of
straw are placed in the mountains, sometimes at a dis-
tance of a two days' excursion. In the evenings before
the attack the men sit for a while in a large circle, their
weapons lying in the centre, but they soon disperse
around the different fires to sleep, while some of them
watch. Somebody goes ahead and makes a big fire
near the dummies, and the attack begins at dawn. Four
men have been chosen to kill the dummies, only one,
who leads, carrying a shield; they all have feathers at-
tached to their hats or to specially made leather caps.

On their return there is dancing for four nights and
singing; the dancing is similar to that of the sahuaro
feast. Some of the men, who are well paid by general
contributions, play the part of those who kill Apaches,
imitating their actions ; one of them carries a shield and

PASSING OF THE OLD 363

the rest have ordinary weapons. The four who killed
the dummies keep away from the dancing place until
the last night. They fast, and must not drink water.
Pits are made in the ground, a hundred yards or more
away, which are a foot deep and wide enough to hold
a man sitting with legs crossed. Here the four warriors
have to sit immovable during the whole night, holding
the scalps of the supposed Apaches, and care being taken
that they do not face either the sun or the moon. Special
songs are sung for these men. One man looks after
them, and they are under so much restriction that they
cannot scratch their heads or any part of their body
with their hands, but have to apply a small greasewood
twig if the necessity arises. Their wives, who also fast,
sit in pits behind their husbands. After the dance is
over the four men still have to keep up the taboo and
dieting four days longer; then they bathe, and when
they go to sleep many songs come to them in their
dreams. Among the Pimas, when the warrior had killed
an Apache, his wife made a tray, with a large svastika
design interwoven.

The primitive condition of Papago society is giving
way to the new, but not without a jar. In old times in the
house of a prominent man, with his four or five wives,
no quarrels would arise. When his household was in-
creased by the additional families of his sons who, accord-
ing to ancient custom, made their homes with him, the
serene atmosphere continued; there was no question of
mother-in-law, or other disturbing factors, in their nicely
adjusted relations. The families were large and peace

364 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO

and harmony reigned, but now all that is changing. The
Indian who has to work for his living finds it hard to make
ends meet, and to support additional people becomes im-
possible, hence quarrels and unpleasant conditions begin
to manifest themselves.

Formerly they lived in large rancherias, but in the last
twenty years the tendency has been to scatter. They
have been touched by commercialism and are now show-
ing energy in acquiring cattle and other property. For-
merly, too, a family owned a couple of cows and a horse or
sometimes they had no animals, but during the last twenty-
years the tribe has acquired a considerable number of
live-stock, often twenty cows and from ten to twelve horses
to a family. Four or five families are the individual pos-
sessors of a few hundred head of cattle, but there is no
difference in their mode of life from that of the rest.

The women are clever in adapting themselves to the
new conditions. I know of an instance where the wife
made a shirt for her husband without ever having learned
how to cut it out, and the garment, when finished, was
very creditably done. What the girls desire most to ac-
quire at school is the knowledge of music and dress-
making. Some of them have learned at the Presbyterian
schools to play the piano, which redounds much to the
credit of the schools. To develop man's sense for har-
mony and the beautiful, whether by music or other re-
fining pursuits, is as important as to teach him to read
and write.

The Papagoes recognize the white man's superiority
and have begun to make money an aim in life, which may

CIVILIZING THE INDIANS 365

be the necessary step for their further advancement.
They have adopted civilized man's mode of dressing, his
tools, vessels, and implements, sewing-machines, and even
phonographs, bacon, bread, and coffee, and all the different
brands of crackers and canned goods. Their ideas and
manners are naturally changing. One prominent Papago
complained to me that the women were gossiping now as
white women do. These Indians still insist on speaking
their own language, but they might just as well give it up,
as they no longer preserve their traditions and ancient
customs. The future augurs well for the Papago as long
as the government's wise prohibition against the sale of
alcohol continues to be rigidly enforced. There is no
trouble in civilizing the Indians by education, but a great
step in the right direction would be to civilize the rough
whites first.

APPENDICES

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APPENDIX II
RANCHERIAS, PRESENT AND PAST, OF THE PAPAGO

WITH INTERPRETATIONS OF THEIR NATIVE NAMES

I have found it convenient to treat Arizona and Sonora separately.
The division into winter and summer rancherias has been maintained,
although it is sometimes difficult to make a strict distinction. Instead
of winter rancheria I use only the word "rancheria," which comprises
in the list, as indeed also in actuality, especially the winter habitations,
including also at times permanent abodes.

The words "summer rancheria" designate the temporary habita-
tions resorted to for the purpose of agriculture during the capricious
showers of the summer. The Indian name for summer rancheria is
obitak, field for cultivation (milpa). The common Mexican expression
for this kind of ranch, both in Sonora and southern Arizona, is tem-
porales, which means ranches dependent for their water upon showers,
a Spanish-Americanism, also used in Peru. (Bandelier.) Rancho de
temporal: "ranch of rain-storm" is the name for a single ranch of this
kind. "Winter rancheria," used in the above sense, is indicated by the
letter r; "summer rancheria" by the letter s.

The four Pima rancherias of the Kohatk people are given at the
end of the Arizona division. At the end of the Sonora division will be
found the names of the principal camps of the sand Papagoes (arenenos).

I. — Arizona

Aaiv6nam, Rancheria. "Both Sides Hat." {Aai, both sides; vdnam,
hat.) A mountain there looks like a hat, seen from either of two
sides. South-west of Santa Rosa, s, in the Quijotoa Range, near
Brown ell.

Jktjin, Summer Rancheria. "Arroyo Mouth." (Ak\ arroyo; tjin,
mouth.) Two and one-half miles south of Ma kum hooka, r.

377

378 APPENDIX II

Aktjin, Rancheria. Three or four miles south of Maricopa railroad
station.

Alitjukson, Summer Rancheria. "Little Tucson" or, more correctly,
"At the foot of {short or son) small (dli) black (tjuk) hill." Three
miles from Artesa Range, on the north side of the road between
Indian Oasis and Fresnal, r.

Aloitak, Summer Rancheria. "Little Field." (Alt, small, child; ditak,
field, milpa.) Two miles south-east of Santa Rosa, s.

Anekam, Summer Rancheria. "Where the an tree grows." (An, a
slender tree, belonging to the leguminosce. It has long leaves and
pink flowers; may possibly be the desert willow.) Half of the
people are from Tjuupo, r., in the north-west.

Aquimuri, Rancheria. In Papago, Akimuri ("River," "Arroyo").
East of La Nariz, r., Sonora, Mexico, three miles inside of the
boundary line. Three or four families live here. There is a pond
here.

Barajita, Rancheria. In Papago, Tonoka ("Knee"). Situated on the
east side of the Ajo Range, five miles from the northern point, near
the range.

Bates's Well, also called Growler Well or El Veit. In Papago, Tjuni-
kdatk ("Where there is sahuaro fruit." Tjuni, sahuaro fruit).
Twenty miles (seven leagues) north of Quitovaquita, r. Some of
the former sand people live here. At present this is a mine and
store, a few Americans residing. Good well.

"Bitter Well," Rancheria. In Papago Sivvdxia. (Siv, bitter; vdxia,
well, waterhole, also spring.) Two miles east of the Vekol mine.
Four to five families are said to live here.

Brownell, mine, store and post-office in the Quijotoa Range, eighty
miles west of Tucson. (See Aaivonam.)

Cacate, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Kdka ("Clearing"). South-
east of Gila Bend and west of Vekol mountains, about thirty-five
miles west of Kohatk (Pima). The population, according to in-
formation given me by Mr. T. Childs, of Batamote, is about two
hundred, old and young, and is much mixed.

Cajilon, Rancheria. In Papago, Aakta ("Horn lying." Aak, horn).
Fifteen miles south of the Vekol mine. This is an old rancheria, now
probably abandoned, the former inhabitants living in Cacate, r.

APPENDIX II 379

Charco de la Piedra, Temporales. In Papago, Hotashbnevo (Pond at
the base of the rock." Hdta, stone, rock; short or son, base, at the
foot of; vo, pond). Twenty to twenty-five miles west of Pozo
Blanco, r. Indians come here from Pozo Redondo, r.

Comobdbi, Rancheria. In Papago, Komvdxia ("Well where the kom
tree grows." Kom, tree with red berries, called cumaro in Spanish;
v&xia, well (Spanish, pozo), or a hole dug in the sandy bed of an
arroyo to reach water, also spring. If it were the tree's well,
then it would be called Komvdxiak). In the Comobabi mountains,
seven miles distant from Kavvaxiak.

Covered Well or Pozo Tapado, Rancheria. In Papago, Maishpvaxia
{maishP, to cover; vdxia, well, waterhole, also spring). Fifteen
miles west of Indian Oasis; one and one-half miles west of
Tjiuvak, r. Inhabited by ten or twelve families.

Coyote, Rancheria. In Papago, Pantak ("Where the coyote is." Pan,
coyote). In the northern part of Baboquivari Range. Situated
two miles south of the road when at two miles' distance from
Maishe's Well.

Cubo, Temporales. In Papago, Kuvo ("Big Pond." Ku, large, big;
vo, pond). It is five miles south-east of Barajita, r., twenty to
twenty-five miles south of Ajo copper mine, and about the same
distance north-west of La Nariz, r., Sonora, Mexico. This is a
large summer rancheria on the llano. Indians come here up to
the number of one hundred and fifty souls from the rancherias
Sauceda, Cacate, and Barajita, and from Gila Bend, to cultivate
the soil.

El Mezquite, Rancheria. In Papago, Vdtjeki ("Small Waterhole."
The hole was made and water gathered by digging with a basket).
North of La Nariz, r., Sonora, Mexico, nine miles (three leagues)
from the boundary line, in a basin near Mezquite Range. Very
old, probably now abandoned.

Fresnal, Rancheria. It consists of three rancherias in the western and
middle part of Baboquivari Range.

1. Kdxikux {Kdxi, mulberry tree; kux, where it stands) is the

most northern.

2. Tshiuliseik ("Willow Forest." Tshiuli, willow; seik, forest).

One mile south of Koxikux.

380 APPENDIX II

3. Pitoikam ("Where there are ash trees." Pitoi, ash tree).
Three miles south-west of Tshiuliseik. This latter ran-
cheria is the largest of them. Probably there are no less
than five hundred souls in the three rancherias. Nos.
1 and 2 are situated one and one-half miles in among the
foot-hills, about four thousand two hundred feet above sea
level; No. 3 is at the beginning of the llano.

Giikivok, Summer Rancheria. "Where the plough was lying." (Giik
(also kiik), plough; vok, lying.) South of Indian Oasis.

Horseshoe, Placer gold mine, store, and post-office. In Papago,
Komaktjivurt ("Gray Soil." Komak, gray; tjivurt, soil. The
name alludes to the presence of caliche). In the Quijotoa Range.
The gold digging itself was formerly alluded to as dlak, "Where
there is gold" (oro). At present only the Indians occasionally dig
for gold.

Indian Oasis, store and post-office, seventy miles west south-west of
Tucson. (See Kdmoktetuvdvosit.)

James' Ranch, Rancheria. In Papago, Vavstjuutak ("Green Rock."
Vav, rock; stjilutak, green). In the Artesa mountains, a couple
of miles south of Indian Oasis.

Jiquibo, also called Pirigua, Summer Rancheria. "Where there is a
rough mountain." (In Papago, Hikibon or Hikjovan. Hik,
rough, ridged. Hair that has been cut short is also said to be hik.)
Situated on a llano in a kind of basin, north-east of Ajo copper
mine. There are several waterholes or wells here, and the Ind-
ians are said to use the water for irrigating purposes.

Kditjimok, Summer Rancheria. "Burnt Sahuaro Seed." (Kaitj, seed
of the sahuaro fruit; mok, burn.) Another name for Santa Rosa, s.

Kakota, Rancheria. "Crooked." It is on the south-west side of the
Quijotoa Range, eight miles south of Horseshoe. Indians settled
here, falling heir to a well that some Mexicans abandoned when
the placer mining of the place gave out.

Kdvolik, Summer Rancheria. "Hill." Six or seven miles south of
Kuditak.

Kawdxiak, Rancheria. "Badger's Well." (Kav, badger; vdxia. See
under Comobabi.) In the Comobabi mountains, about six miles
north-east of Noria, r.

APPENDIX II 381

K'dipatvdoka, Summer Rancheria. "Dead Old Man's Pond." (Kdli,
old man; pat, dead, something of the past; vo, pond.) Fifteen
miles north-east of Horseshoe.

Kdmalik, Summer Rancheria. "Mountain Crest." Name is derived
from a low ridge north of the place. Ten miles south-west of
Fresnal, r. It has a pond.

Kdmoktetuvdvosit, Rancheria. "Where the turtle was caught."
(Kdmoktet, turtle.) It is a mile from Indian Oasis and was estab-
lished five years ago

Kukdmalik, Rancheria. "Big mountain crest." (Kit, large, big;
kdmalik, mountain crest.) Fourteen miles north of Anekam. It
is twenty-five to thirty miles west to south of Silver Bell. The
village is inhabited all the year on account of a well left by an
American. Its fields are insignificant. The inhabitants go to
Anekam for religious ceremonies.

Kuditak, Summer Rancheria. "Large Fields." (Ku, large; ditak,
field, milpa.) Thirteen miles south of the "Pumphouse."

Kutjuupo, Rancheria. " Big waterhole in the rock." (Ku, big; tjiiupo,
rocky cavity containing water, natural water tank; Spanish, tinaja.)
In the western foot-hills of Baboquivari Range, eight to ten miles
north of Fresnal, r.

Kvitatk, Summer Rancheria. "Mezquite Root." (Kvi, mezquite;
tatk, root.) Thirteen miles north-west of Indian Oasis; one-half
mile from the "Pumphouse."

Kvivo, Rancheria. "Below," "Low Down." One and one-half miles
north-east of Santa Rosa, s.

La Lesna, Rancheria. In Papago, Shuundkia ("Hanging Wolf."
Shiiu, wolf; ndkia, hanging). Three miles from the boundary
line, eleven miles (four leagues) north-west of Banori, r., Sonora,
Mexico.

La Moralita, Rancheria. Papago name unknown. It is ten or twelve
miles north-east of La Nariz, r., in Sonora, Mexico.

La Quttuni, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Aktjin ("Arroyo's
Mouth." Ak, arroyo; tjin, mouth). North-west of La Nariz, r.,
Sonora, Mexico, three miles from the boundary line. It used to
be visited by Indians from Sonoita, but has been abandoned over
ten years.

382 APPENDIX II

Los Camotes, Rancheria. In Papago, Shdatkam (Name of an edible
root). Situated three miles west of the Mezquite Range, near the
boundary line, northward of La Nariz, r., Sonora, Mexico. Two
families live here, who go to Sonoita when the water gives out.

Makumivdoka, Rancheria. "Caterpillar Pond." (Mdkum, a yellow,
black-striped caterpillar, boiled and eaten by the Papago. It ap-
pears in August. Vo, pond.) It is nine miles south-east of Kvivo,
r. (near Santa Rosa, s.)

Milpitas, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Kokuli ("Corral," "En-
closure"). Twelve miles south-east of Pozos Muchos, r. (north-
ern part of the Papagueria).

Ndipokam, Rancheria. The name is of Spanish origin, meaning un-
known. It is north-west of Horseshoe, in the Quijotoa Range,
two miles from Brownell.

Noria, Rancheria. In Papago, Ndolik (Corruption of the Mexican
name which means "spring"). It used to be called in Papago,
Vipenak ("Where vipenoi, a small cactus, is growing"). It is a
short distance west north-west of Indian Oasis. This is an old
village and it has more people now than before.

Notovaxia, Rancheria. "Well where the sacaton grass grows." (Not,
sacaton grass; vdxia, well, waterhole, also spring.) In the north-
ern part of the Comobabi mountains.

Ootovaxia, Rancheria. "Sand Well." (Oot, sand; vdxia, well.) In
the northern part of the Comobabi mountains.

Pelon or Rancheria del Pelon, Rancheria. Also called "Lower Vil-
lage." In Papago, Kvivo ("Below," "Low Down," namely, on
the river). It is in Gila Bend Papago Reservation, ten miles from
Gila Bend railroad station.

Pirigua, Summer Rancheria. (See Jiquibo.)

Pisinemo, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Pitinemoi ("Bear's Head."
Pitfin, brown bear; mo, head.) It is fifteen miles north-west of
the south end of the Quijotoa Range.

Pozo Blanco, Rancheria. In Papago, Komvdxia ("Well where the kom
tree (Spanish, comaru) grows"; vdxia, well, waterhole, also spring).
Near the Quijotoa range, eight miles south-west of Brownell; four
or five miles west of "Covered Well." It is forty miles from Pozo
Redondo, r. Four or five families live here.

APPENDIX II 383

Pozo Colorado, Rancheria. In Papago, Vokivdxia ("Red Well."
Vok, red (usually sovok or suviik); vdxia, well, waterhole, also
spring). Near Pozos Muchos, r. It is a very old rancheria, in-
habited by two to four families.

Pozo de Federico, Rancheria. (See Wall's Well.)

Pozo Redondo, Rancheria. In Papago, Sikorttjuupo ("Round Tank."
Sikort (sikul), round; tjuupo, rocky cavity with water; in Spanish,
tinaja). It is about twelve miles east of Ajo copper mine, on the
east side of the Pozo Redondo Range. These Indians have fields
in Cubo, s.

Pozo Tapado, Rancheria. (See Covered Well.)

" Pumphouse," Rancheria. About twenty years ago a mining com-
pany made a deep well and a pump with a large chimney, eight
miles south-east of Horseshoe, in the Quijotoa Range. The well
was later abandoned. Some Indians established themselves here,
and this small rancheria is now usually called Vdinomkux ("Iron
prominence." Vdinom, iron; kux, standing, prominent).

Pozos Muchos, Rancheria. In Papago, Moivdxia ("Many Wells."
Mdi, many; vdxia, well, waterhole, also spring). South south-
east of Gila Bend, eight miles easterly of Sauceda, r. Eight to
ten families live here. They have several waterholes or wells and
are said to irrigate with this water.

Quitovaquita, Rancheria. In Papago, Alivaipia ("Small Springs."
Ali, small, child; vaipia is plural of vdxia, well, waterhole, spring).
South of Ajo copper mine, just within United States boundary.
This is a locality with many small springs of good water. It is
permanently occupied by one or two families. Some agriculture.

Rincon, Rancheria. Two miles north of Sepdnovak, r.

Rincon, Rancheria. In north-eastern part of Baboquivari Range. A
large rancheria, belonging to a civilized Papago. According to
my interpreter, Pablo, there are no other rancherias on the eastern
side of Baboquivari Range.

San Lorenzo, Rancheria. In Papago, Stlinakik ("Hanging Saddle."
Sili j saddle, a corruption of the Spanish silla). Twelve miles east
south-east of M akumivdoka.

San Miguel, Summer Rancheria. Five miles south from Tjuulik, s.; ten
miles north of Monument 143 on the boundary line. Of recent date.

384 APPENDIX II

San Pedro, Rancheria. In Papago, Viopoli (a kind of tobacco). This
is a new rancheria in the Roskruge Range, seventeen miles' dis-
tance north from Hayes's Well, thirty-six miles from Makumi-
vooka, r.

Santa Rosa, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Kudtshi ("Big Peak."
Ku, large; dtshi, narrow mountain). The name is derived from a
mountain near by, to the west. In Santa Rosa Valley. This is
the largest summer rancheria, and is probably also to a certain
extent inhabited in the winter. The fields extend nearly two miles
in either direction.

San Xavier del Bac. In Papago, Vdk, which means "where the river
reappears in the sand," a "sink" of the river.

Sauceda, Rancheria. In Papago, according to information from Mr.
F. Wall, called Tshiulikami ("Where willow grows." Tshiuli,
willow). South of Gila Bend railroad station and seventeen miles
east north-east of Batamote ranch. This is the main rancheria of
the north-western part of the Papagueria. I am informed by
reliable authority that there are fifty to seventy houses here. In
1 9 10, on account of want of water for the cattle, only thirty to
forty individuals lived here.

Sepdnovak, Rancheria. "The smell of the coyote." (Pan, coyote.)
Small rancheria in a narrow valley in the middle part of the Babo-
quivari Range.

Siilimok, also called "Upper Village," Rancheria. "Burnt Saddle"
(SlTi (Spanish, silla), saddle; m'ok, burn). In Gila Bend Papago
Reservation, about eighteen miles north of Gila Bend. In 1910
it had fourteen families, immigrated less than twenty years ago,
from Sauceda, r.

Sikulhimatk, Summer Rancheria. "Water going around." (Sikul,
round.) Five miles north of the " Pumphouse," east of Horseshoe.
The water-shed is here, between water flowing into the Gila River
and to the Altar River.

Susuta, Rancheria. In Papago, Shdsetak ("Where water gathers";
shdtak, water.) Three leagues north-east of La Nariz, r., Sonora,
Mexico. In the winter five or six families live here. The water
lasts sometimes for a year.

APPENDIX II 385

Tecolote, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Tjiikutko ("Owl's Cry."
Tjukut, owl; ko, cry). An old rancheria fifteen miles west south-
west of Indian Oasis.

Temporales, without name yet. Nineteen miles east of Makumivdoka, r.

Tesota, also called "Second Village," Rancheria. In Papago, Uupat-
oitak ("Cat-claw Field." Uupat, the tree called cat-claw, in
Spanish, tesota; ditak, field for planting, milpa). In the Gila
Bend Papago Reservation, five and a half miles east of Pelon, r.
It consisted in 1910 of eight families, immigrated from Pozos
Muchos, r.

Tjeavolitak, Summer Rancheria. "Where the barrel cactus is."
(Tjedvoli, barrel cactus; in Spanish, bisnaga.) Two miles from
an abandoned ranch called Fresnal, between Maishe's Well and
Indian Oasis.

Tjiuvak, Rancheria. "Where something rotted." Five miles north
of Horseshoe.

T jotomvaxiaka, Rancheria. "Bear's Well." (Tjotom, bear; vdxia,
well, waterhole, also spring.) In the Baboquivari Range, about
eight miles south of Fresnal, r.

Tjuulik, Summer Rancheria. "Corner." On the plains, south south-
west of Fresnal, r., six miles south of Komalik, s.

Tjiiupo, Rancheria. "Rock cavity with water." Name alludes to
some cavity in the rock containing water, a natural tank; Spanish,
tinaja. In the Quijotoa Range, perhaps ten miles north of
Brownell.

Tdapit or BToapit, Summer Rancheria. "White Clay." (Toa or
BToa, white; pit, clay.) Twelve miles north of Jiquibo, s. Seven
or eight families come here.

Topahua, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Koksumok ("Burnt Dog."
Koks, dog; mok, burn). Seven miles south of Indian Oasis.

Tdtobitk, Summer Rancheria. "Crooked." Ten miles from Cacate, s.

Tshiovo, Summer Rancheria. "Long Pond." (Tshi, long; vo, pond.)
Eight miles south-west of the south end of Quijotoa Range.

Tucson City. Originally a rancheria. In Papago, BTjukson ("At the
foot of the black hill." BTjuk, black; son or shon, at the foot of).
The name alludes to the hill nearest to the Santa Cruz River, and
near that on which the Desert Botanical Laboratory is.

386 APPENDIX II

Vdmuli, Summer Rancheria. " Basin " (low place where water gathers).
It is near Giikivok, r.

Vdvemo, Rancheria. In Papago, "Mountain with Head." {Vav,
mountain; mo, head.) The name alludes to a low ridge on top
of which is a rock. Ten or twelve miles (four leagues) south of
Indian Oasis. Many Indians here.

Vdvkux, Rancheria. " Projecting Rock." {Vav, mountain, rock; kux,
standing, prominent.) In the northern part of the Baboquivari
range; three miles from Hayes's Well.

Vopelohavdoka, Summer Rancheria. "Burro Pond." (Vdpelo, burro,
donkey; vo, pond.) Ha has no special meaning; usually it
means "there" or "what." Eight or nine miles south-west of
Topahua, s.

Wall's Well or Pozo de Federico, Rancheria. In Papago, Kdokatsh
("mountain crest"). Sixteen miles east of Bates's Well, right
at the northern point of Sierra del Ajo. There used to be some
mining done here, which has been abandoned, a few Indians from
Barajita afterward settling there and taking possession of the wells.
Information from Mr. Frederick Wall, who discovered and named
the Growler mine.

PIMA RANCHERIAS

South of Casa Grande railroad station, on the Southern Pacific, are
found the following four Pima Rancherias, inhabited by the so-called
Kohatk people.

Kohdtk, Pima Rancheria. "Depression." (Literally: "Where a hol-
low has been made" through water or other agency.) It is situ-
ated due east of the Vekol mine, and nine miles north-west of
Kukdmalik, a Papago rancheria. Elevation, 2,500 feet.

Tatamtimerikut, Pima Rancheria. "Where the foot had run." {Tat,
foot; mumeri, run; kut, where.) It is four miles north of the Jack
Rabbit mine, is very old, and foot-racing is said to have started
here. Foot-races, accompanied by betting, are still practised, two
or four men running together at one time. They have also races
called witshuta, where a ball is tossed along, similar to those in use
among the Tarahumares of Chihuahua, Mexico.

APPENDIX II 387

Tshilhutsho or Tj&itjo, Pima Rancheria. "Caves." Name alludes to
some natural cavities in the ground (tshuhu, cave) nine miles
from Casa Grande railroad station and from Vaivavo, r.

Vaivavo, Pima Rancheria. "Cocklebur Pond." (V&iva, cocklebur;
v 0, pond.) Twelve miles north of Kohdtk, r.

II. — Sonora, Mexico

DISTRICT OF ALTAR

Agua Prieta, Rancheria. (See Pozo Prieto.)

Akimuri, Rancheria. "The River." The present site of the Indian
settlement of Sonoita, the Mexicans having occupied the lands
where the Indians originally lived, and where the small Sonoita
River sallies forth. It is about one mile down the river from the
Mexican settlement and goes under the name of El Pueblo. Con-
siderable wheat is cultivated by irrigating with water from the river,
and the Indians, the number of whom varies according to season
but generally may be seventy to eighty or more, are well-to-do.
See Sonoita.

Akitaivuni, Summer Rancheria. "Where the river begins." (Ak\
river, arroyo; vun, begin.) Situated six miles east of Sonoita,
where there were several swamps before the river, some years ago,
broke through the gravelly accumulations. Abandoned.

Alamito, Mexican ranch, formerly Papago rancheria. In Papago,
Vdipia ("Waterholes," "Springs"). Two miles north of the town
of Trincheras. There is an old church here. Miguel, an old
Indian of Quitovac, saw Indians living here seventy years ago.

Alamo MuertOy Mexican ranches, formerly Papago rancheria. In
Papago, Aupa ("Cottonwood Tree." Plural is atipa). Eight
leagues west of Caborca and four leagues north-east of Pozo
Moreneno, it is situated on the Altar River, on the llano; the
ranches are about north of the Sierra del Alamo, which is near by,
and three leagues west of Bisani.

Altar. Town on the Altar River, formerly rancheria. In Papago,
Vdvuk ("Where there is a mountain." Vav, mountain, or rocky
place). Three families live in the outskirts, making a living by
working for Mexicans.

388 APPENDIX II

Arivaipa, Mexican ranch, formerly Papago rancheria. In Papago,
Alivaipia ("Small Springs" or "Small Waterholes." Ali, small,
child; vdipia is plural of vdxia, well, waterhole, spring). Eight
miles south-east of Garambullo ranch. The Papagoes used to
have fields here. The old men died and the young men went
to Arizona.

Arivaipa. Papago camp, abandoned; formerly of importance. It
is about thirty-five miles east of Puerto de Libertad, fifteen miles
from the coast. This marks the southern limit of the Papago
tribes' extension. A reliable old Indian, Miguel of Quitovac,
knows this place, of which Mr. M. Taylor, formerly superintendent
of the Yaqui mine, gave me the following description: "A large
mezquite tree is growing on the south side of the arroyo. Here the
Papagoes from Pozos de San Ignacio used to camp before being
dispossessed by the rurales. East of this tree, on the bank of the
arroyo, is another mezquite overhanging the arroyo; one of the
limbs has been cut off. Directly under that cut one should dig
for water which will be found eight to ten feet deep in the sand;
it stands in caliche, into which a two-foot deep hole has been
made." According to the same informant, there is a Seri well,
"Coyote," on the same arroyo, six miles from the coast. The
main camp of the Seri Indians, perhaps now numbering two hun-
dred in all, is said to be at no great distance from there.

Arivaipa. This name also appears on the upper Gila River, near
the San Carlos Reservation. Formerly the Apaches used to be there.

A til, Mexican Pueblo, formerly rancheria. In Papago, Atshi ("Narrow
Mountain "). Six leagues from pueblo Oquitoa on the Altar River.

Bajio de Evaristo, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Hiashpik
("Buried"). According to tradition, a beautiful Papago woman
was buried here. It is situated in the fertile, long, broad valley
leading west to Sonoita. About fifteen families live here.

Banori, Rancheria. In Papago, Vdnolik ("Curve"). Seven miles east
of Mexican rancheria Bajio del Alcalde, which hauls water from
there. It is not far from the other Banori, both of them located
near the boundary.

Banori, Mexican ranch, formerly Papago rancheria. Two miles west of
Cobota. It is probably the ranch which formerly was called Pozo

APPENDIX II

3*9

de Luis. Two Papago families keep animals there by permission
of the Mexican owner, J. Celaya.
Bisam, Hacienda. Formerly rancheria. In Papago, Viisin ("Small,
deep arroyo"). Sixteen miles west south-west of Caborca. The
extensive and fertile lands have been made into a Mexican hacienda
for wheat raising. Fourteen or fifteen families live here who are
dependent on the hacienda for work. Ruins of an old Jesuit
church are existent.
Caborca. Town on the Altar River, formerly rancheria. In Papago,
Kdvortk ("Rounded Hill"). Seven families live in the outskirts,'
two of them possessing and cultivating milpas (garden fields), the
rest being laborers for Mexicans.
Cacate, Rancheria. In Papago, Kdka ("Clearing"). On the south-
western side of Sierra de Santa Rosa (east of Sonoita). Aban-
doned fifteen years ago.
Carricito, Rancheria. In Papago, Vapktjuutshk ("Where the reeds
stand." Vapk, reed; tjuutshk, upright, standing). Near Rancho
de Macias, toward the boundary line. Nine families; the men
seek work in the Campana gold mine.
Charco de Chavarria, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Kdvoit
("Badger's Field." Kav, badger; ditak, field, milpa). Four leagues
east of Sonoita. Papagoes used to live here formerly, and in the
last four years a couple of families are again occupying the country.
Charco de la Mujer, Rancheria. In Papago, Ofviavooka ("Woman's
Pond." Ofvi, woman; vo, pond). Two leagues north north-east
of La Nariz, r. People from La Nariz visit it for the sake of ob-
taining water for the cattle. Otherwise it appears abandoned.
Chujubabi, Rancheria. In Papago, Tshuhuvaxia ("Cave Well."
Tshuhu, cave; vdxia, well, waterhole, also spring). Four leagues
south-east of Ouitovac. It is inhabited by three or four families.
Cdbota, Rancheria. In Papago, Kdvortk ("Hollow in the ground").
It is on the west side of the peak of Cobota, about eight miles
south-east of Cerro de la Lesna, and four miles south of the boun-
dary. Ten families live here. When the water is consumed they
go to Tecolote, s., Arizona, where they have fields.
Comobabi, Rancheria. Forinterpretation^Comobabi, Arizona. Itissix
leagues east south-east of Cobota. More than ten families live here.

39o APPENDIX II

Coyote, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Panvaxia ("Coyote Well."
Pan, coyote ; vdxia, well, waterhole, also spring ). A small
rancheria, north of Tajitos mine (about twenty-five miles north of
Caborca). Water is procured by digging holes in the river bed.

Cubabi, Rancheria. In Papago, Kovaxia ("Hidden Well." Ko,
cover; vaxia, well, waterhole, also spring). Near the Sierra de
Cobota, four leagues north of Plomo, mining town. Eight to ten
families.

Cubo, Mexican ranches, formerly Papago rancheria. In Papago,
Kuvo ("Big Pond." Ku, big; vo, pond). Thirty miles north of
Caborca.

Cumaro, Rancheria. In Papago, probably, Komvaxia (Kom, tree with
red berries, called by the Mexicans cumaro ; vdxia, well, waterhole,
also spring). About eight leagues west of Sasabe custom-house
and two leagues from the boundary. Four or five families live here.

El Durasno, Rancheria, abandoned some time ago. Situated north of
the mountain of the same name (north of Carricito, r.), at the foot
of it. Water was brought from some pools in the mountain.
Sons of those who lived there are still alive.

El P.icu, Rancheria. In Papago, Ookobonjik1 ("Tears." Ook, tears;
bonjik* is euphonistic, and does not mean anything by itself).
Water comes up very sparingly, hence the name. It is about
forty- five miles south south-west of Caborca and eight leagues
west of Pozos de San Ignacio. Has been uninhabited for more
than thirty years, though some Indians from Pozos de San Ignacio
had a ranch here.

El Tren. Abandoned mining village, formerly Papago rancheria, called,
in Papago, Liima ("Whetting Stone." In another version the name
Lin is a corruption of Trinidad and means nothing). Near Zofii.
Placer mines were formerly worked here.

Klkimikux, Summer Rancheria. "House Standing." (Ki, house;
kux, standing, prominent.) It is less than one league east of
Cumaro, r., There are ten families living here.

La Espuma, Rancheria. In Papago, Tdtshaki ("Foam." Water
makes foam in the hole when being excavated in the sand. Good
water to drink). In the Sierra de la Espuma, south of La Nariz.
It is inhabited only in the winter.

APPENDIX II 391

La Nariz, Rancheria. In Papago, Tdak ("Nose")- It is situated at
the foot of the south-eastern promontory of the Sierra de la Nariz.
Its profile resembles a nose, hence its name. In the winter usually
fifteen families live here. At the time of my visit in November
there were five families; some were absent in Represa de Enrique,
others were working for the Americans (agriculture) in Arizona.
There is a dam here made by Mexicans, American citizens, who
are trying to drive the Indians away.

Lesna Fieja, Rancheria. In Papago, Kuktjuitakkux ("Palo Verde
Standing." Kuktjuitak, palo verde; kux, standing, prominent).
It is about three leagues north-east of Bajio de Evaristo, in the
north-western part of the District of Altar, at the edge of the
basin. Abandoned about twelve years ago. Ruins of huts and
a broken dam can still be seen.

Llano de Juan Ramon, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Kdkaulivo
(Kokauh, a bush called in Spanish garamhullo ; vo, pond. "Pond
among garambullo Bushes"). It is one league south-east of
Garambullo ranch. Has been abandoned probably fifty years.

Onak, Rancheria. Pronounced Sonak in Bisani ("Where there is salt."
On, salt). Twelve leagues south-west of Caborca; three leagues
west of Pozo Prieto (abandoned r.). Abandoned in the present
generation. Mexicans had here formerly gold and silver mining
by arrastras.

Oquitoa, Mexican Pueblo, formerly rancheria. In Papago, Hdkito
("Boundary Limit"). Two leagues north-east of Altar, on the
Altar River.

Pittquito, Town on the Altar River, formerly a rancheria. In Papago,
Pittskin, "Gone to Nothing." The name alludes to the annihila-
tion of both parties to a combat which is said to have taken place
on a mountain near the present town. On account of the per-
manency of water in this part of the river and the fertility of the
plain, this locality is to-day of agricultural importance. There are
four Papago families here, who work for the Mexicans.

Pozo Grande, Rancheria. In Papago, Kuvaxia ("Big Well." Ku,
big, large; vdxia, well, waterhole, spring). It is near the south-
western point of Cerro del Viejo, ten leagues south of Caborca.
Has been uninhabited for fifty to sixty years.

392 APPENDIX II

Pozo Moreneno, Rancheria, abandoned. Near the southern part of
Sierra del Alamo. Twelve leagues south-west of Caborca, three
leagues from Pozo Prieto (abandoned r.).

Pozo Prieto or Agua Prieta, Rancheria. In Papago, sf jukshootak
("Black Water." sTjuk, black; shootak, water). Near the foot-
hills of Sierra del Viejo, two leagues from Pozo Grande. Papagoes
from Bisani visit it every year, but it is more or less abandoned.

Pozo Verde, Rancheria. In Papago, T juitakvaxia ("Green Well."
Tjuitak, green (also stjuitak); vdxia, well, waterhole, spring).
The name is derived from a fine spring at the foot of the Babo-
quivari Range, about a mile south of the boundary line, and a
few miles west of Sasabe custom-house. The largest rancheria in
Sonora. Twenty-five to thirty families are said to live here.
There is a general here in charge of all the Papagoes of Sonora.
The place is of importance in the mythology of the tribe.

Pozos de San Ignacio, Rancheria. In Papago, Tootavaipia ("White
Waterholes." Tda or BTda, white; vdipia, plural of vdxia,
waterhole, spring). The earth is white here, probably on ac-
count of the presence of caliche. It is about twenty leagues south
of Caborca. This rancheria was given up in 1907 after a brave
fight with the rurales (Mexican police), of whom eighteen were
killed, nearly all the Indians escaping with their belongings into
Arizona. Many families were living here, sixteen persons being
full-grown men.

Quelele Quemado, Rancheria. In Papago, Kusitmohitatsh ("Burnt
Carrion Hawk." Kusit, carrion hawk, with a yellowish throat).
One to two leagues north of Lesna Vieja, r. Abandoned long
ago.

Quitovac, Rancheria. In Papago, Vapk or Vdketa, "Reeds" {Vapk is
the name for reeds; they here grow in a swamp, produced by flow
from the springs). An important place in the life of the tribe.
Several fine springs at one locality furnish abundant water. There
was once mining activity here. At present only the Indians occa-
sionally "dry wash" the placer mines. Two or three Mexican
families live here and there is a store. The Indians are fairly
well-to-do, and in the winter as many as fifteen families may be
found at Quitovac.

APPENDIX II 393

Represa de Enrique, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Njuoport
("Nighthawk"). It is situated in the fertile, long, broad valley
leading west to Sonoita. Seven families have cattle here and own
a large pond. They come from La Espuma, r.

San Pedro, Rancheria. In Papago, Somiiok ("Peak"). One league
south-west of Coyote, r. Four families live here.

Santo Domingo, Hacienda, formerly Papago rancheria. In Papago,
Tjutshpa, "Pounding Stone." (Tjtitshpa, a rude stone vessel in
which mezquite beans, mescal, etc., are pounded with a stone pestle;
sometimes a hollow is made in the rock for the same purpose.)
Seven miles west of Sonoita on the Sonoita River. A large tract
of land was cultivated here by Mexicans, through irrigation from
Sonoita River, but it has been abandoned for several years. No
Indians live here any more.

Saric, Mexican Pueblo, formerly rancheria. In Papago, Shaarik
("Pass." Spanish, puerta). Five leagues from Pueblo Tubu-
tama on the Altar River, near the boundary of the District of
Magdalena. Some Papagoes live here.

Sasabe, Mexican custom-house, formerly a rancheria. In Papago,
Shdshovuk ("Echo").

Sonoita, Rancheria. In Papago, Kavortkson ("At the foot of the
rounded hill." Kdvortk, rounded hill; son, in Sonoita pronounced
shon, at the foot of, base). Sometimes the place is designated in
an abbreviated manner as shon only, from which possibly the
Spanish name Sonoita is derived. The oasis was originally called
Sonoitag or Sonoidac. In the reprint of Ortega's "Apostolicas
Afanes," Mexico, 1887, the name Sonoidag is attributed to the
Indians. Speaking of Father Kino's journey in 1699, the nar-
rator says: "They gave the name San Marcelo to a place which
the natives call Sonoidag, a very favorable locality on account of
its lands, pasture, and abundant water" (libro 2, cap. 7, p. 340).
The rancheria used to be near the beginning of the river, but the
Indians have gradually been driven by the Mexicans lower down,
occupying now a site one mile from the Mexican village of Sonoita.
(See Akimuri.)

Suvuk, Summer Rancheria. "Red." (See under "Camps of the Sand
Papagoes or Areneiios.")

394 APPENDIX II

Tubutama, Mexican Pueblo, formerly rancheria. In Papago,
Tjuvutam ("High Up"). Three leagues from Mexican pueblo
Atil on the Altar River.

Zoni, Mexican ranch, formerly Papago rancheria. In Papago, Shdne-
kam ("Spring that never dries up"). Six miles from Rancho
de Macias in north-western part of the District of Altar. The
Campana mine pumps water from here. Formerly there was
placer mining here.

CAMPS OF THE SAND PAPAGOES OR ARENENOS

These Papagoes formerly occupied the sandy country along the
upper part of the Gulf of California, reaching from the lower Colorado
River eastward as far as Santo Domingo, near Sonoita, and north-
ward to Gila Range and Cabeza Prieta Range. Their head-quarters
was the Pinacate region.

Agua Dulce, Camp. In Papago, Ikuskaatsh (Ikus, piece of clothing;
Spanish, trapo). West south-west of Quitovaquita, at a place
where the river water appears again. A ranch was established
here by a Mexican, but was later abandoned. Both here and at
Agua Salada, three miles lower down, the Papagoes used to come
in great numbers to hunt or to gather sahuaro, but no agriculture
was ever undertaken.

Agua Salada or La Salada, Camp. In Papago, Onokshdotak ("Salt
Water." Ono, salt; shootak, water). Name of a certain part of
the Sonoita River bed, south south-west of Quitovaquita. One
and one-half miles further down is Los Pozitos, the name being
derived from small wells that travellers make in the sand of the
river-bed, to get water. Drinkable water may be procured in the
same way at Agua Salada.

Hdtunikat, Camp. "Sunset," "West." South of Pinacate, four miles
west of Tinaja de los Chivos. This was the head-quarters of the
sand people and, to employ a Mexican usage, may be termed a
rancheria. Drinking water was brought from Los Chivos. An
annual festival — dancing and singing — was given to procure rain
and "make the grass grow." See page 228.

APPENDIX II 395

La Choya, Camp. In Papago, Hanammetjurtivaxia (Hdnam, choya,
a very spiny cactus of the opuntia genus which grows in abundance
here; metjurti was interpreted to me as indicating "in," "near";
vdxia, well, waterhole, spring). South of Pinacate. This camp is
a few yards from the beach, and fresh water is found in a hole that
has been dug ten feet deep.

Laguna Prieta, Camp. In Papago, Vapk ("Reeds"). A salt lagoon
west of Gila Range (Sierra de las Tinajas Altas). Abundance of
fresh water found among the bulrushes on the marshy shore.

La Soda, Camp. In Papago, Tjutjaka. South of Pinacate. This is
a deposit of soda, ten miles east of Salina del Pinacate, and three
miles from the sea. Fresh water is found by digging on the shore,
as well as three miles west at a locality called Tule.

Pozo del Caballo, Camp. In Papago, Hiatitvdxia ("Well of the Sand
Dunes." Hia, Hiati, or Hiatit, sand dunes, sand; vdxia, well, a
hole dug to reach water, also spring). This locality is about half-
way between Salina del Pinacate and Salina Grande. It is a dif-
ficult place to find, near some high sand dunes west of Estero del
Tule.

Salina del Pinacate, Camp. In Papago, Ono or On ("Salt"). Also
called Kavonoka ("Badger's Salt." Kav, badger). A small de-
posit of salt in a slough three miles from the coast, south-west of
the Pinacate region. This is the principal place from which the
Papagoes gather salt. Fresh water is found by digging on the
shore.

Salina Grande, Camp. In Papago, Murtegshdotak (" Running Water."
Miirteg, running; shdotak, water). A large salt deposit forty miles
east of the mouth of Colorado River, three miles from the coast.
On the flat, north-western shore are sixteen fresh-water springs.

Sierra Blanca, Camps. In Papago, Tdakomalik ("White Mountain."
Tda or 3Tda, white; kdmalik, mountain crest). A sierra south of
Pinacate. A small water tank lasting three months is found near
the north-east point on the east side, but the Indians had several
camps, especially on the south side of the range.

Sierra del Rosario, Camps. In Papago, Hiatikomalik ("Mountain
Crest in the Sand." Hiati (also Hia or Hiatit), sand; kdmalik,
mountain crest). A mountain range among the sand dunes

396 APPENDIX II

south of Gila Range (Sierra de las Tinajas Altas). Though far
from water, there are many evidences of camping places here.

Suvuk, Summer Rancheria. "Red." A hill near by has the same
name. In the Pinacate region, five miles south-east of Tinajas de
Emilia. There was some agriculture here, among the lava ridges.
People came from Batamote to cultivate brown beans, white beans
(tepari), maize, and squashes on a small scale. It is doubtful
whether these can be considered sand people, probably not.
Nearer the coast no attempt at agriculture was ever made.
There is a tinaja near by called tjuumikux ("Where the pitahaya
stands." Tjumi, a kind of pitahaya cactus; kux, standing, promi-
nent).

Tinajas J has, Camp. In Papago, Oovak ("Where arrows were shot."
Oo, arrow). The name originates from a legend about two Indians
who shot arrows from either side of the ridge. One did shoot
across. Where the arrows of the other fell short the pools ap-
peared. These well-known tinajas, eight in number, are in the
southern part of the Gila Range (Sierra de las Tinajas Altas) that
stretches from the neighborhood of Yuma south-east. It is on
the old track from Caborca, over Sonoita, to Yuma.

Tinaja de los Chivos, Camp. In Papago, Hdtunikat ("Sunset,"
"West"). The Spanish name is the vulgar expression chivos
(goats) for mountain-sheep. In the south-western part of Pina-
cate. An important camp. There is a track leading from here
to the former main camp of the sand people, called by the same
name, Hdtunikat. Another track leads over the mountains to
Tinajas de Emilia.

Tinaja de los Papagos, Camp. In Papago, Hitjuupo ("Urine Pool."
Hi, urine; tjiiupo, natural tank, water in rock cavity; Spanish,
tinaja). The name alludes to imaginary spoliation by the de-
parted. In the north-western part of Pinacate. In years of ordi-
nary rainfall the three tinajas here furnish water all the year
round. An important camp.

Tinaja del Cuervo, Camp. In Papago, Havanikosh ("Raven's Nest."
Hdvani, Raven (corvus cryptoleucus); kosh, nest). In the south-
western part of Pinacate. This is a regular camp of the salt
expeditions. Water can nearly always be depended upon here.

APPENDIX II 397

Tinajas de Emilia. In Papago, Moitjutjupo ("Many Pools." Moi,
many; tjtlupo, water in natural cavity of the rock, natural tank; in
Spanish, tinaja). An important camp on the slope of Pinacate,
south-east of Los Picos del Pinacate, in a straight line hardly
two miles from the top. There are four large, natural tanks here,
one of them fairly easy of access. In years of ordinary rainfall
the water lasts here all the year round.

Tinajas de la Cabeza Prieta, Camp. In Papago, sT]ukomokamtjuupo
("Black Head Pools." sTjuk, black; mo, head; tjuupo, water in
natural cavity of the rock, natural tank; in Spanish, tinaja). The
Cabeza Prieta Range is east of Gila Range (Sierra de las Tinajas
Altas). In the middle part, on the east side, is found a number
of tinajas, one above the other, in a narrow gorge at the foot of
the tallest top, from which the range derives its name. This must
have been an important camp of the sand people, and certain old,
crude stone heaps are found at the entrance to the gorge. (See

Page 324-)

Tinaja del Tule, Camp. In Papago, Otoxakam ("Where there is
Bulrush." Otoxak, bulrush (typha latijolia); in Spanish, tule).
A well-known pool on the old trail from Caborca, over Sonoita,
to Yuma, one day's journey east of Tinajas Altas.

Tornillal, Camp. The name in Papago is slightly doubtful, but is
probably Totshakshdotaki ("Foam on the Water." Tdtshak,
foam; shdotak, water). Twenty-five miles from the mouth of
Colorado River, fourteen miles west of Salina Grande, on the
coast, one-quarter of a mile from the beach. Screwbean trees (in
Spanish, tornillo) grow here, hence the name given to the locality
by my guide. Water has to be dug for, and is brackish and bitter.

APPENDIX III

GEOLOGICAL SKETCH OF THE PAPAGUERIA

BY CYRUS F. TOLMAN, PROFESSOR IN MINING AND GEOLOGY, UNIVER-
SITY OF ARIZONA

The two groups of formations most extensively developed in the
Papagueria belong respectively to the most ancient of rocks and to those
formed during geologically recent times — to the pre-Cambrian com-
plex on the one hand and to the Tertiary-Quaternary group on the
other. This great area has been studied only in spots by geologists,
and therefore detailed knowledge of the formations is lacking, and
they have not been matched up with those of other and better known
portions of the country. As far as present knowledge goes, the older
group consists of gneisses, schists, slates, crystalline limestones, and
coarse grained granites — the granites and granite-gneisses being most
abundantly developed in the south-western portion. The group of
younger rocks is made up chiefly of extrusives; volcanics represented
by andesites, rhyolites, rhyolite-tuffs, and basalts. These are men-
tioned in the order of eruption as shown in the majority of localities.
The most recent of the basalts, the extrusion of some of which may
have continued into historic times, form in cases perfect volcanic cones,
but the older lavas and most of the basalts appear as remnants of
flows in fault blocks, or better as fault strips, these upturned blocks
and strips forming many of the volcanic ranges.

Less widely distributed than the two groups mentioned above, but
important throughout the Arizona Copper Fields as ore carriers, are
the Paleozoic Series of limestones and quartzites. These are found in
the Papagueria in the eastern and southern ranges; for instance, in the
Tucson Mountains, the Silverbell Mountains, the Sierrita Mountains, in
the Vekol Mountains, in the Caborca Mountains, etc. In the southern
Papagueria (Altar District) a Mesozoic age is suspected for the thin
bedded limestones abundant in this area, but as far as known to the

APPENDIX III 399

author the fossil collections necessary to determine this definitely have
not as yet been made. Intrusive granites and porphyries, in general
somewhat earlier than the flows, intrude all the earlier formations, and
are responsible for most of the ore deposits of the region.

Of the many interesting physiographic features of this area, the
most striking is the commonly developed knife edge form of the moun-
tains which protrude above, and are partly buried by, the detritus of
the valleys. These mountain stumps are always chiselled into precip-
itous slopes by wind and torrential action. The valley fill is largely
subaerial, deposited by the withering torrents from the mountains,
which rarely if ever reach the gulf, or brought up by the wind from the
present and ancient strands of the gulf, and built into the extensive
"medanos" described by Mr. Lumholtz. Only temporary incursions
of the gulf up the valleys, in Miocene and later times, are suggested
by the fossils collected by Mr. Lumholtz and others, and by the nu-
merous abandoned shore lines of the Salton Sea to the west.

The climate of this region has undoubtedly been dominantly arid
during recent geological times (late Tertiary, Quaternary, and Recent
Periods), as shown by the physiography of the country, the make-up
of the desert fill, etc. Brief respites, however, due to increasing hu-
midity, are suggested by numerous "dry lakes," at times filled with
water, and more recent changes by the deserted Indian villages, far
from any known surface water supply.

INDEX

Aauhihiani, children's cemetery,
99-106.

Abras, 17.

Abronia umbellata, 313.

Adofi, 345.

Adonde, near Wellton, "Sand-peo-
ple" at, 332.

Afterglow of the sun, 158.

Agave americana, 4.

Agriculture. See under names of coun-
tries, places, peoples; e.g., Papagoes,
agriculture.

Agua Dulce camp, 196, 199-200,
286.

Agua Salada, 161, 200, 245, 281.

Agustin, Papago Indian, his silver
mine, 291, 329.

Ajo, 81, 336.

Ajo Mountains, 31, 162.

Aktjin rancheria, 127, 129, 355;
foot-races at, 75 ; singers from, 96.

Alamo, 287.

Algadones, 251.

Algansea tincella, 174.

Aloitak, singers from, 96.

Altar, District of, 83, 184, 264; min-
ing, 182; order and government in,
177; prevalence of hydrophobia in,
184; rancherias, alphabetical list
of, 387-394; water supply, 264.

Altar River, 16, 17, 18, 143, 146-
147; village sites on, 335.

Altar, Sonora, 31, 134, 135, 177, 200,
258,261,334; description of town,
144-145; ports near, 142.

Alvina, Papago chief, 61-62, 79, 80,
82.

Ammombroma sonora?, 319, 330.

Amole, 34.

Amphorbia polycarpa, 336.

Ancient remains, 337, 340-343. See
also Antiquities.

Anekam rancheria, 69, 108, 355;
singers from, 96; tattooing at, 1 10.

Anemonopsis californica, 264.

Animals. See fauna under names of
countries and places; e. g., Mexico,
fauna.

Animals subsisting without water,
153. See also Water supply.

Antigonon leptopus, 135.

Antilocapra americana mexicana, 284.

Antiquities, 143, 179-180, 335, 340-
342. See also Ancient remains;
Fortifications.

Ants. See under names of countries
and places, also 202, 335.

Apaches, 24, 26, 29, 239, 291; bas-
ketry, 353; fights with other Ind-
ian tribes, 74, 3S9-362-

Apache Tontos, 250, 252.

Arenehos, 228, 231, 291, 299, 316,
329-332; camps of, alphabetical
list, 394-397-

Argemone intermedia, 283.

Arituaba range, Indian fortifications
in, 142.

Arizona, ancient artifacts and forti-
fications in, 9, 41, 142, 143, 341-
342; ants, 116; birds, 13-14;
Black Hills of, 9; booms, 82;
climate, 5, 18, 32-33, 38, 67-68,
74, 78, 79, 109, 114-115, 343;
fauna, 21-23, 71-72; 80, 112, 116;
flora, 4, 10, 12, 14, 15, 19-21, 34,
37, 38. 45 #•» 72, 78, 80, 81, 100,
130-131; Indian reservations, 6-9,
337, 338-340; Indians, 9-10, 14-
15, 16 ff., 332; Indian wars, 74;
irrigation, 338; mineral wealth, 17;

401

402

INDEX

mining, 82, 83, 290; progress of,
3; prohibition laws in, 9; rain-
fall, 43, 79, 81, 114, 117-118, 127;
rancherias in, alphabetical list,
377-387; rattlesnakes, 117; rivers,
5, 17-18; roads, 114, 127-128;
school-buildings and hotels, in-
appropriate to climate in, 343,
347; scorpions, 117; storms, 79,
86-87, 118-119; water supply,
18/., 37,72, in.

Arizona, University of, 4-5, 32, 347.

Arrow heads, flint, superstitions re-
lating to, in, 180.

Arroyos. See under names of countries
and places.

Atole bianco, 113, 351.

Aztecs, 28.

Baboquivari Range, 16, 33, 34, 39,
41, 67, 123, 174, 357; arroyos in,
41-42; caves in, 42; description
of, 31-32.

Badger, 22, 231.

"Badger's Well" rancheria, 63.

Baileya multiradiata, 313.

Bajio del Alcalde ranch, 162.

Baltarea, 247.

Bancroft, 197.

Bandelier, Ad. F., 6, 24, 29, 377.

Barajita rancheria, 285, 355, 359.

Basketry. See under names of tribes,
also Papagoes; Pimas.

Bates's Well, 290.

Beans. See Frijoles; Tepari.

Beauclerk, Lord Osborne, 249-250.

Beebe, Miss Emily, 204.

Beloperone californica, 207.

Birds. See under names of countries
and places.

Bisani, 165.

Bisnaga, 20.

Black Hill Cemetery, 12.

Bonancita, 150.

Bonillas, Y. S., 158, 160, 234.

Brandy, 9, 74, 75, 194, 195, 291.

Brownell, Mr., store-keeper and
mine-owner, 96.

Bull-roarer, 88, 90, 95-96.
Burden basket, 66, 68.
Burros. See under Mexico.
Butcher-bird, 80.

Cabeza Prieta Ranges, 197-198,
220, 239, 291, 322, 323.

Caborca, 142, 144, 177, 212, 245,
258, 261; American filibusters in,
147; ball games and races at, 74;
church in, 146; diseases, 146;
fighting at, 74; fortifications near,
142; Indians in, 147, 148, 354;
old mission of, 25, 146; sahuaro
festival at, 147-148; town of, de-
scription, 145 ff.

Caborca-Yuma trail, 196-197, 200,

237-
Cacate rancheria, 355.
Cacti, 10, 11, 20, 21, 151-152, 188,

276, 302, 310; providing drinking

supply for animals, 152, 153, 154.

See also Choyas; Sahuaro.
Cajilon, 174.
Cajon del Diablo, 197.
California, agriculture, 9, 19; dis-
covery of gold in, 176, 241;

grooved stone axes in, 143; routes

to. See Caborca-Yuma trail; South

em Pacific Railroad.
California, Gulf of, 16, 45, 198, 210,

226; fishing, 257-258; flora, 319;

Salinas, 163. See also Mexico,

Salinas. «
California, Lower, Indians from,

250; mountains in, 210, 258, 260.
C amino del Diablo, 197.
Camote of the medanos, 318-319.

See also Sand-people.
Campana gold mine, 157.
Cara Colorada. See Pancho, El

Doctor.
Caravajales, Indian hermit, 231, 266,

290. 333-

Cardo, 283.

Cargador, 139.

Casa Grande, 1 1 1 ; ancient ruins, pres-
ervation and antiquities of, 340-342.

INDEX

403

Castillo, Papago medicine-man,

35-37-

Catholic Missions, 5-6, 12, 24-25.

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Full text of "New trails in Mexico; an account of one year's exploration in north-western Sonora, Mexico, and south-western Arizona, 1909-1910"

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